The Duchess of Malfi: Context (OCR A Level English Literature)

The Duchess of Malfi: Context

Context should inform, but should never dominate, your reading of the text. Any comments on context must consider the significance and influence of the contexts in which the text was written and received. When exploring context for The Duchess of Malfi, you should consider primarily the literary context, and then include any other relevant contexts as appropriate to the question. Each of the topics below links directly to the key themes and ideas in the play:

• Literary context

• Social context

• Historical context

Literary context

When considering a play’s literary context, it is important to explore the form and genre it is written in, as well as anything the play might do that defies the expectations of a particular genre. The Duchess of Malfi can be thought of as a Jacobean drama in the genre of revenge tragedy. The sections below will explore each of these literary contexts in relation to the play in more detail.

Jacobean drama 

• Jacobean drama can be considered the body of plays written and performed during the reign of James I in England, between 1603 and 1625

• The Duchess of Malfi was first performed in 1613 by the King’s Men, the theatre company to which Shakespeare belonged

• Jacobean drama is known for its exploration of tragedy through presentations of political and social unrest

• During King James I's reign, Britain was divided religiously and politically

• Unlike Elizabethan drama, Jacobean drama is typically cynical:

  • The Duchess of Malfi conveys cynical attitudes towards political and religious institutions through the corrupt Cardinal and violent Duke Ferdinand

• While the Elizabethan era preferred comic dramas, Jacobean drama contains darker themes:

  • Themes such as death, revenge, and betrayal were commonly explored in plays of this period:

    • The Duchess of Malfi depicts betrayals which lead to the death of all major characters

    • The plot revolves around the brothers’ vengeful acts towards the Duchess

    • The Duchess and Antonio are betrayed by those they trust

• Political satire, such as that written by Ben Jonson, was popular as it exposed, through dark humour, failings and fallibilities within institutions and politics:

  • A growing, more hedonistic, Cavalier movement advocating joy and pleasure stood in contrast to the strict and repressive teachings of Puritanism 

• As a result, Jacobean drama often questions the social order:

  • The Duchess of Malfi’s resolution presents a reversal of social order

  • The nobility is killed and the Duchess’s heir is in the hands of a minor character, Delio

  • He ends the play, concluding that integrity and honesty will lead to a good reputation

• Jacobean drama explores human complexities, focusing on themes of corruption, sex and violence:

  • The Duchess of Malfi explores human motivations, desires and fears that lead to violence

  • The Duchess’s sexuality is the cause of the play’s conflict and leads to her murder

  • Characters are shamed and punished for deviation from social norms

• Jacobean plays explore themes of morality and question human capacity for evil:

  • The complex characters in The Duchess of Malfi are flawed individuals

  • The heroine is manipulated and betrayed by a character who has been corrupted

• It was not always guaranteed that a character’s virtue would be rewarded in Jacobean drama:

  • In The Duchess of Malfi, characters can be seen as morally ambiguous:

    • Bosola is good by nature, but corrupted by evil 

    • He acknowledges that a virtuous life will not be rewarded and this is the reason he turns to sin

    • Antonio, though promised a reward for his virtue, is killed

• Typical elements of Jacobean drama include revenge, madness and corrupted power:

  • This is evident in The Duchess of Malfi through Ferdinand’s madness and vengeful plots, and in the Cardinal’s corrupt nature 

• Plays from the Jacobean era often include elements of the supernatural:

  • This could include ghosts and illusions, often brought about by a guilty conscience

  • In The Duchess of Malfi, Ferdinand imagines horses in a fit of madness brought about by his guilt 

Revenge tragedy 

• The origins of revenge tragedy date back to Roman philosopher Seneca (4 BC–AD65)

• He wrote a number of plays involving revenge:

  • This revenge was often inflicted by supernatural forces

• Revenge tragedy was popularised again by Elizabethan playwrights, such as Shakespeare, who wrote a number of revenge tragedies, such as Hamlet and Macbeth:

  • The focus on fate and determinism are highlighted with ghosts and illusions

• Revenge tragedies typically included elements of the supernatural in order to raise questions about fate and accountability

• In Jacobean England, the widespread belief in witchcraft and ideas that the gods were culpable for the ills of life can be seen in the many references to witchcraft:

  • In particular, these are used as insults by the male characters, Bosola and Ferdinand 

• In revenge tragedies, ghosts or hallucinations signal a guilty conscience:

  • This is evident in Ferdinand’s “illness”, a disease that elicits strange illusions of horses

• The revenge play was known for its common plot line, which sees a protagonist seeking revenge for a perceived injustice

• As protagonists attempt to avenge themselves, revenge tragedies explore whether they are redeemed or punished:

  • The plays often deal with the idea of mercy and forgiveness:

    • The Duchess’s last word is “mercy” 

  • In The Duchess of Malfi, the Cardinal and Ferdinand seek vengeance against what they perceive to be an injustice

  • Webster presents their outrageous responses in order to ask audiences to consider the morality of their actions and beliefs  

• Revenge tragedies were popular in Jacobean England after the Gunpowder Plot in 1605:

  • The plays raised questions about the dissatisfaction of living under oppressive governmental and religious structures

  • In The Duchess of Malfi, Bosola is an example of a bitter individual betrayed by his leader

• Revenge plays always include murder, often delivered by a clear villain:

  • Nevertheless, the villain is often the victim of an oppressive social system

• John Webster wrote another revenge tragedy called The White Devil in 1612, which dealt with murder and corruption, specifically related to a Cardinal who becomes Pope

• One of the conventions of revenge tragedies, which contribute to their popularity, are the shocking and brutal scenes depicting violence:

  • In The Duchess of Malfi, Webster shows the strangulation of the Duchess and her maid, Cariola, as well as the murder of Julia, who kisses a poisoned Bible

  • Antonio, Bosola, the Cardinal and Ferdinand stab each other in crazed and impulsive revenge 

• Murder is often accompanied by corpses:

  • Bosola carries the Duchess’s body to the women

  • The Cardinal carries Julia’s body to his room

Social context

A play’s social context can be thought of as the social and political environment in which it was written, and the social and political environment in which it is understood. Webster’s influences include the religious dissent and philosophical influences at the time of King James I’s unstable reign. Both of these aspects of social context are explored in more detail below.

Religious conflict in the Jacobean era

• Webster’s play is based on a real Duchess who was murdered by her brothers (one of whom was a cardinal) for her relationship with a steward:

  • In this way, The Duchess of Malfi presents themes of corruption debated at the time

  • The Catholic Church was reputed to be violent and hypocritical 

• Webster further links this to religious institutions, as he sets the play in Italy

• At the time of the play, to an English audience, Italy represented corruption and deception:

  • Pope Alexander VI was known to have mistresses and illegitimate children

• This stereotype came from the complex politics of Italian nobility, in particular the powerful, corrupt families who controlled much of Italy:

  • Members of these powerful families would often be given religious positions in exchange for money or favours

  • In the exposition of The Duchess of Malfi, Antonio Bologna, just returned from France, describes the French court 

  • He ironically compares it negatively to the court of Malfi

• By the time the play was first performed, England had suffered from religious turmoil for almost a century:

  • This conflict was primarily between Protestantism and Catholicism

• Although there was some subversive continued loyalty to the Catholic Church at the time, after years of violent conflict much of England had turned to Protestantism:

  • Webster’s play challenges the violence within religious institutions

  • The characterisation of the Cardinal, who hides behind his title while committing murder, highlights the façade his religious status affords him

  • His violence exhibits the abuse of power

  • In particular, the Cardinal is blasphemous as he murders Julia

  • From a position of trust (afforded by his title) he asks her to kiss the Bible 

  • The Bible is poisoned and this kills her

Philosophical influence

• Niccolo Machiavelli’s political philosophy, most notably written about in The Prince, which was published in 1532, spread from Italy across Europe

• His teachings advocate principles of government in which political ambition is placed above morality:

  • His philosophy suggests the end justifies the means

  • In The Duchess of Malfi, the Cardinal is believed to have bribed his way into his position 

  • Ferdinand wants the full family inheritance and does all he can to ensure the Duchess does not marry again

• Using deceit to maintain authority and carry out policies is endorsed as an effective  method of maintaining control in Machiavelli’s writing:

  • Ferdinand employs a spy to watch the Duchess

  • Bosola helps him achieve his cruel ambitions

• Societal uncertainty regarding power structures grew as a result of Machiavellian influence and is reflected in plays such as The Duchess of Malfi:

  • Webster shows a dissatisfied public who gossip about their leaders

  • Antonio refers immediately to good leadership, which is based on integrity 

• The influence of this philosophy can be seen particularly through the character of Bosola, who presents a Machiavellian attitude towards life:

  • He accepts money to be a spy and exposes the Duchess’s secret marriage (which he secretly respects)

  • He is a malcontent, depressed and cynical  

  • This presents his deceitful, Machiavellian nature

  • He is aware of the difference between good and bad and chooses sin regardless  

  • Webster portrays him as mercenary:

  • His acknowledgement of evil and continued treachery is different to Ferdinand’s passionate outrage:

Historical context

While background knowledge of the historical context in which a text was written and received is useful, any reference to historical context should be made judiciously and linked carefully to the themes in the play and the focus of the exam question. Below you will find some comments about historical context relevant to the key themes and ideas in the play.

• John Webster was an esteemed dramatist whose plays were performed by The King’s Men, Shakespeare’s theatre company

• His plays were performed for King James I, who was an ardent fan of drama

• Webster’s play can be seen as a criticism of powerful and corrupt political institutions both in England and across Europe (particularly in Italy, where he sets the play):

  • The court of King James I was reputed to be of loose morals

  • Three of the play's major characters are corrupt and act with impunity:

    • The Cardinal betrays Bosola and kills his mistress

    • Duke Ferdinand refuses to pay Bosola for his services and asks him to commit murder at least three times

• In 1603, when King James I became the new monarch of England, there was continued dissatisfaction regarding the violent suppression of Catholicism

• This led to the Gunpowder Plot:

  • This conspiracy by a Catholic faction to bomb parliament and kill King James I in 1605 reflected the instability within the political system

• Uncertainty regarding political leadership was reflected in revenge tragedies and plays with conspiratorial plots:

  • The Duchess of Malfi depicts Duke Ferdinand’s scheme to spy on the Duchess

  • The Cardinal plots to banish the Duchess and her husband 

  • Bosola conspires throughout the play in his role as spy