Superpowers & International Decision Making (Edexcel A Level Geography)

• Superpowers and emerging nations play a key role in global actions including:
  • Crisis response
  • Conflict response
  • Climate change

Crisis response

• During times of crisis such as floods or earthquakes countries provide help to other countries 
  • Superpowers and emerging nations pay a leading role in this
  • The aid can be in the form of finance, building materials and other resources
• Aid is provided through International Governmental Organisations (IGOs) and Non-governmental Organisations (NGOs)
• At least 105 countries and 16 international organisations pledged help to Turkey and Syria following the 2023 earthquake, including significant resources from the USA and emerging superpowers
  • USA sent a disaster response team of 200 people and pledged $185 million in aid
  • China offered $10.3 million in aid to Syria and Turkey as well as sending three rescue teams totalling almost 600 people
  • The EU sent 31 rescue teams and 5 medical teams as well as committing €6.5 million
  • NATO deployed temporary housing to accommodate 4,000 people
  • UN released $25 million from its emergency funds 
  • The World Bank agreed to provide $1.78 billion in aid for relief and recovery
• The countries have also taken a leading role during the Covid pandemic

Conflict response

• In 1942 President Roosevelt proposed the concept of 'four policemen'
  • USA, UK, China and the former USSR would be the only ones to have arms
  • They would work together to maintain global peace
• Although this did not come to fruition the USA and emerging superpowers do often act as 'global police'
• Interventions have occurred in many incidences of growing tensions and conflicts around the world
  • NATO and UN intervention in the conflict in Bosnia and Herzegovina starting with the deployment of UN peacekeepers in 1992
  • NATO military intervention in Libya in 2011
  • The USA led military intervention by a coalition of 35 countries when Iraq invaded Kuwait in 1990
  • In 2001 the USA with support from the UK, Australia, Canada, France and Germany led military intervention in Afghanistan to remove the Taliban from control

Climate change response

• Global warming and climate change require an international response because it affects the entire globe
• Superpowers and emerging nations have a significant role to play in the response
• In 1988 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was set up to assess the 'risks of human-induced climate change
• This was followed by several international agreements:
  • Earth Summit 1992
  • Kyoto Protocol 1997
  • Paris Agreement 2015
• President Trump's decision to withdraw the USA from the Paris Agreement in 2020 was seen to be detrimental to their superpower status - the USA rejoined in 2021 after the election of President Biden

• In 1942 President Roosevelt proposed the global strategy of 'Four policeman'
  • The strategy involved the USA, UK, China and Russia being the only armed nations
  • The four would work together to maintain global peace
• Although this did not happen the four nations would become the the permanent members of the UN along with France
• The concept of alliances was not new and various alliances exist across the globe 
• The alliances are focussed on:
  • Military
  • Economic
  • Environmental
  • Justice and peacekeeping

Military alliances

• The existence of military alliances throughout much of human history has been important to ensure mutual protection
• If one nation is attacked, the allied nations agree to defend them
• The earliest, which is still in force, is the Anglo-Portuguese alliance of 1388

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US current military alliances

• The USA's military alliances support its military strength across the globe and enable it to have:
  • A leading role in deciding on military operations 
  • Military bases in countries around the world - approximately 600 in total 
  • Global reach

• North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) was formed in 1949 
  • The purpose is to safeguard the freedom and security of member nations 
  • Collective defence means that an attack on one nation is an attack on all NATO nations
• Australia, New Zealand, United States Security Treaty (ANZUS) formed in 1951
  • Original focus on co-operation on military matters in the Pacific Ocean region
  • Now relates to worldwide conflicts
• Rio Treaty or Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance with Latin American countries
• Mutual Defence Treaty with South Korea
• Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security with Japan
• Thanat-Rusk Communique with Thailand

Economic and political alliances

• These are agreements between nations which promote trade through the removal of trade barriers such as:
  • Taxes
  • Tariffs
  • Quotas
• Economic alliances tend to be regional rather than global
• They are also political alliances

European Union (EU)

• There are 27 member states

Members of the European Union

• The EU aims to promote peace, its values and well-being of its citizens
• The Euro currency is used by 19 of the members
• A united Europe has far greater economic and political power than the individual nations, enabling
  
  • More power in trade negotiations
  • Greater access to markets
  • Greater protection for EU businesses and industry
• Allows for freedom of movement for people (within the Schengen Area) and goods
• It is also a political alliance with supranational and intergovernmental decision making
• The UK left the EU in 2021; as one of the largest trading nations in the EU, this has impacted both the UK and the remaining EU nations

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)

• Established in 1994 creating a free trade zone between Canada, USA and Mexico
• In 2008 all tariffs and quotas were abolished on US exports to Canada and Mexico
• Has now been replaced by the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA)
• One of the largest trading blocs in the world 

The Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN)

• Established in 1967 by the nations of Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand, ASEAN aims to:
  • Accelerate economic growth, social progress and cultural development
  • Promote regional peace and stability
  • Promote collaboration between nations
• It now has ten member states

Environmental alliances

• Increasing global environmental challenges have led to the creation of environmental alliances to tackle the global issues including:
  
  • Climate change
  • Deforestation

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

• Established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) and the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP)
• Created to provide members with regular reports on knowledge and understanding of climate change, impacts, future risks and possible options for mitigation and adaptation
• The IPCC currently has 195 members

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

• Established an international environmental treaty to tackle the impact of human activity on climate
• Signed by 154 states in Rio de Janerio at the Earth Summit 1992
• Conference of the Parties (COP) meetings take place each year at locations around the world

• The United Nations is a complex organisation
• Founded by 51 countries following the end of WWII, it aims to:
  
  • Maintain international peace and security
  • Develop relations between countries
  • Promote social progress, living standards and human rights
• The UN is made of six principle divisions
  • General Assembly
  • Security council
  • Economic and social council
  • Secretariat
  • International Court of Justice
  • Trusteeship council

• There are 193 member nations of the UN

• The UN includes many of the world's most powerful and influential intergovernmental organisations (IGOs):
  • United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)
  • World Trade Organisation (WTO)
  • Counter-terrorism committees
  • International Law Commission
  • Human Rights Council
  • United Nations Educational and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)
  • World Health Organisation (WHO)
  • World Bank
  • International Labour Organisation (ILO)
  • Food and Agriculture Organisation of United Nations (FAO)
  • UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

Security council

• There are five permanent members of the UN Security Council which is the most powerful part of the UN
  • China
  • France
  • Russia
  • UK
  • US
• The western countries (UK, USA and France) have an advantage as they are able to outvote Russia and China who frequently vote together
• The five members have power of veto and can reject any proposal
• The security council is responsible for maintaining peace and preventing conflict. one way this is achieved is peacekeeping missions

Peacekeeping missions

• The UN is frequently involved in peacekeeping missions to try and promote sustainable peace such as in:
  • Sudan and the war in Dafur (2007-2020) and the second Sudanese civil war (2005-2011)
  • Ethiopia and Eriteria due to the conflict between the two countries (2000-2008)
  • The former Yugoslavia due to the Yugoslav wars (1992-1995)
  • Lebanon as a result of the Israeli invasion (1978)

International Court of Justice

• International law is upheld by the International Law Commission and the International Court of Justice
  • The seat of the court is in The Hague
  • There are 15 judges who represent the global regions
  • Its role is to settle legal disputes and disputes between countries, as well as giving advisory opinions on legal questions
  • Its work includes international criminal tribunals for war crimes

Climate change conference

• Every year a Conference of the Parties (COP) is held
• This is the decision making body for the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
  • It includes representatives of all signatory countries
• In Paris 2015 every country agreed to:
  • Limit global warming to below 2^oC and aim for 1.5^oC
  • To make money available to adapt to the impacts of global warming
  • Make national plans which set out how they will reduce their emissions - these are known as Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)
  • Review the progress every 5 years
• This is known as the Paris Agreement

• COP has two main purposes:
  • To assess the effects of the past measures that have been introduced to limit climate change
  • To reach agreement and set out plans for future ways to limit climate change