Definitions & Types of Religion (AQA A Level Sociology): Revision Note

Definitions of religion

• Sociologists often argue that religion is a social construct – it is created and shaped by society

• This means that it is not possible to produce a universal definition of religion

• What counts as 'religion' can vary between cultures, and even between groups within the same society

• To deal with this, sociologists usually use three main ways of defining religion:

  • Substantive

  • Functional

  • Social constructionist

Substantive definitions

• The focus is on the content of religious belief – what people actually believe in

• This typically includes:

  • belief in a God, gods or a supernatural power that cannot be explained scientifically (Weber, 1905)

  • sacred texts containing beliefs and moral codes, e.g., the Bible, the Qur'an or the Guru Granth Sahib

  • reverence for holy places, objects, or people

• These are exclusive definitions because they set clear boundaries between religious and non-religious beliefs

Evaluation

• Strength

  • Substantive definitions conform to a common view of religion centred on belief in God

• Limitations

  • Excludes non-theistic religions such as Buddhism and Confucianism, which don’t fit the Western 'God' model

  • Overlooks belief systems that play a similar role to religion but don’t involve the supernatural (e.g., humanism, nationalism)

Functional definitions

• Instead of focusing on what religion is, these definitions look at what religion does for individuals and society

• Religion is understood in terms of the social and psychological functions it performs

Key thinkers

• Durkheim (1915): Religion’s main role is to create social integration and solidarity, not belief in God or the supernatural itself

• Malinowski (1954): Religion helps people cope with life crises (e.g. death, illness) and situations of uncertainty

• Yinger (1970): Religion provides answers to 'ultimate questions' such as the meaning of life and what happens when we die

• Berger (1967): Religion offers a 'sacred canopy' – a protective framework that shields believers from chaos by giving comforting answers to life’s big uncertainties

Evaluation

• Strengths

  • Functional definitions are inclusive, as they cover a wide range of beliefs and practices that provide meaning and integration

    • e.g. civil religion, nationalism, or even strong fandoms

  • Functional definitions avoid Western bias by including religions without a god, such as Buddhism

• Limitations

  • Can be too broad

    • If anything that creates a sense of community or comfort counts as religion, then activities like football chanting might qualify even though they aren’t actually religions

Social constructionist definitions

• Social constructionists take an interpretivist approach that focuses on how people themselves define and understand religion

• Religion is not seen as fixed — instead, it is something that is constructed, contested, and negotiated by different groups

• Aldridge (2013): definitions of religion often reflect power struggles about who has the authority to decide what counts as a religion

  • E.g., Scientology — some governments (such as Germany) have refused to grant it legal recognition, showing that definitions can vary across societies and depend on politics and power

Evaluation

• Strengths

  • Avoids assuming that religion must always involve belief in God or serve the same functions for everyone

  • Captures the diversity of meanings across cultures and historical periods, focusing on insider perspectives

• Limitations

  • Makes it harder to compare religions across societies, since there’s no single agreed-upon definition

  • Risk of becoming too relativist, as almost anything could potentially be labelled a religion depending on perspective

Types of religion

Theism

• The belief that God (or gods) exists—typically a personal creator who sustains and can act in the world

  • Monotheism — belief in one God, e.g., Judaism, Christianity, Islam

  • Polytheism — belief in many gods, e.g., Hinduism, ancient Greek and Roman religions

• Contrasts with atheism and differs from deism, which proposes a non-intervening creator

Animism

• Belief in spirits, forces or ghosts that inhabit people, animals, objects or places

• Spirits are thought to influence the human and natural world, either positively or negatively

• Often associated with shamanism and ancestor worship in pre-industrial or small-scale societies

  • E.g., paganism and ancient religions associated with the Aztecs and Native Americans; the Azande people of Sudan's belief in witchcraft

Totemism

• A specific form of animism where a clan or tribe reveres a totem (e.g., animal, plant, symbol)

• The totem is considered sacred and represents the group’s collective identity

• Durkheim (1915) argued that totemism underpins many religions and reflects his view that religion’s main function is to promote social solidarity.

New Age movements (NAMs)

• Organised modern spiritual trends (1970s–present) that blend Eastern ideas and esotericism with holistic healing

• Emphasise spirituality rather than traditional religion

• Focused on self-development, personal meaning and wellbeing, rather than devotion to a god or supernatural authority

• Often influenced by Eastern traditions such as Buddhism and Confucianism

• Common practices:

  • astrology

  • crystal healing

  • meditation

  • Reiki

  • holistic therapies

• Postmodernists argue that NAMs are increasingly popular in modern society due to their flexibility and individualistic focus

Religion as a conservative force

• Functionalists, Marxists, and feminists all argue that religion can act as a conservative force:

  • It is traditional – defending established customs, institutions, moral values, and gender roles

  • It is conservative – preserving the status quo and maintaining social stability

The functions of religion

• Sociologists debate the role of religion in society

Maintaining stability

• Functionalists: religion promotes social solidarity and integration through shared norms and values

• Helps people cope with stress and life crises that could otherwise disrupt society

• Marxists and feminists: religion acts as ideology, supporting the existing social structure and maintaining stability in the interests of the powerful

Preventing social change

• Marx: religion is a conservative ideology that discourages questioning of authority, exploitation, and inequality

• By promising rewards in the afterlife, religion diverts attention from oppression and prevents working-class revolution

Religion is patriarchal

• Feminists: religion legitimates and reproduces patriarchal power, making it a conservative force, e.g.,

  • Male-only priesthoods (Catholicism, Orthodox Judaism)

  • Sacred texts portraying women as sinful or subordinate (e.g., Eve in Genesis)

  • Religious customs restricting women’s rights in the family and wider society

The beliefs of religion

• Religious beliefs form the doctrinal core of faiths, setting out moral rules and ideals for family life, gender, and sexuality

Traditional values

• Many religions uphold traditional norms about family life, gender roles, and sexuality

• E.g., traditional Christian views on marriage, opposition to divorce, abortion, and homosexuality

Conservative moral codes

• Hinduism: supports arranged marriage and the caste system

• Islam: promotes traditional gender roles and obedience to family authority

• Christianity: historically resisted liberalisation of laws around contraception, abortion, and marriage