Ethnicity & Religiosity (AQA A Level Sociology): Revision Note

Belief trends: stronger in ethnic minorities

• Ethnic minorities in the UK are more likely to engage in religious beliefs and practices than the white British population

• Compared to white people, they are more likely to:

  • see religion as important in their lives

  • identify with a religious group

  • attend places of worship regularly

2021 Census

• In England and Wales, 46.2% of the population identified as Christian

• Significant minority religions included:

  • Muslim – 6.5%

  • Hindu – 1.7%

  • Sikhs – 0.9%

  • Jewish – 0.5%

  • Buddhist – 0.5%

Participation rates

• Church attendance: ~19% of black Londoners attend weekly vs ~8% of white Londoners (London Church Census, 2012)

• Religious practice: ~79% of Muslims actively practise their faith vs ~33% of Christians (Citizenship Survey 2009–10)

• Census 2021: White British are most likely to report 'no religion', while minority ethnic groups are far less likely — showing higher religious engagement

Research evidence

• Goodhew (2012) estimates that around half a million black people are involved with Pentecostal churches in the UK

• O'Beirne's (2004) research suggests that religion is a central part of ethnic minority identity

  • Muslims ranked religion as important as family in shaping their identity

  • African-Caribbeans ranked religion as the third most important part of their identity

  • White British participants ranked religion much lower than family, occupation, education, nationality, gender, income and even hobbies

Declining attendance over time

• Modood et al. (1997) found that:

  • second-generation ethnic minorities are generally less religious than their parents

  • the longer an ethnic group has been in the UK, the less religious its members tend to become

• Despite this decline, ethnic minority religiosity remains higher than average compared to White British groups

Explanations: why ethnic minorities are more religious

• Many ethnic minorities originate from poorer countries with traditional cultures, where religious belief and practice are higher

• On arrival in the UK, these groups — and often their children — may maintain the religious patterns of their country of origin

• However, this explanation overlooks the impact of migration and minority status and how this may give religion a new role as cultural defence and cultural transition

Cultural defence

• Religion provides a source of identity for minority groups facing racism, discrimination, and hostility

• It provides solidarity and protection in a hostile environment

• Bruce (2002) suggests that religion unites a community in the face of change and hostility from wider society, e.g.,

  • the rise of Black Pentecostal churches in the UK during the 1950s, after many Anglican congregations failed to welcome Afro-Caribbean migrants (Bird, 1999)

  • Brierley (2013) noted significant growth of new churches in London catering for specific nationalities and languages, linked to recent immigration

Cultural transition

• Religion and places of worship help immigrants adjust to a new country and culture, offering support and community during assimilation into British society

  • In the US, Herberg (1955) found that religion helped first-generation immigrants integrate into American society

  • In the UK, Pentecostalism among Afro-Caribbean communities played a key role in adaptation by promoting self-reliance and thrift

• Bruce (2002) claims that as groups integrate further into wider society, religious commitment tends to decline, supporting Modood et al.'s findings on second-generation decline

Social & economic factors

• Many ethnic minority groups face poverty, marginalisation, and discrimination

• Religion provides support, meaning, and resilience in the face of disadvantage

• World-accommodating NRMs like Pentecostalism offer an ethic of hard work and self-discipline, helping members overcome hardship and achieve economic success

Functionalist perspective

• Religion acts as social glue, helping ethnic minorities integrate while preserving cultural distinctiveness

• It provides norms and values for communities and offers stability across generations

Marxist perspective

• Many ethnic minority groups are working class, and Marxists argue that religion appeals because it legitimises inequality

• Religion may teach that social inequality is natural or divinely ordained, encouraging acceptance of the status quo