Moral Panics (AQA A Level Sociology): Revision Note

Folk devils & moral panics

• Interactionists and labelling theorists argue that the media plays a major role in the social construction of crime by:

  • labelling certain groups as criminal or deviant

  • exaggerating or distorting their behaviour

  • creating folk devils (scapegoats blamed for society’s problems)

• Cohen (1972) defines moral panics as:

'An exaggerated over-reaction by society to a perceived problem – usually driven or inspired by the media – where the reaction enlarges the problem out of all proportion to its real seriousness.'

How a moral panic works

• The media identify a group and present them in a negative and sensationalised way

• Symbolisation: the group becomes associated with visible signs (clothing, music, slang, behaviour) so the public can easily recognise and stereotype them

• Demonisation: the group is labelled as folk devils and portrayed as a threat to social order

• Exaggeration and distortion of the 'problem', the number involved or the extent of damage caused or cost

• Condemnation: politicians, police chiefs, and other 'respectable' authority figures publicly denounce the group

• Crackdown pressure builds, leading to tougher policing, new laws, and harsher punishments

• Self-fulfilling prophecy develops as increased policing leads to more arrests, which reinforces negative labels and fuels a deviance amplification spiral where the problem escalates

Examples of moral panics

• Mods and Rockers (1964)

  • Groups of working-class youths in seaside towns clashed in minor fights

  • The media reported these scuffles as riots, exaggerating violence and public disorder

  • Their fashion (suits and scooters for Mods; leather jackets and motorbikes for Rockers) became symbols of deviance

  • Authorities increased police presence and tougher controls, which only drew more attention to the groups and worsened tensions

• Mugging (1970s)

  • British media constructed a crisis around street crime, linking it with young Black men

  • Hall et al. (1978) argued this was not just about crime but a way to distract attention from the economic crisis and unemployment

  • The 'mugger' became a folk devil, leading to heavy-handed policing and reinforcing racist stereotypes

• AIDS crisis (1980s)

  • Early coverage presented HIV/AIDS as a 'gay plague', demonising homosexual men as immoral/dangerous

  • This moral panic fuelled homophobia, stigmatisation, and calls for stricter regulation of sexuality

  • Later campaigns (Don’t Die of Ignorance) began to reduce the panic by providing education

• Illegal raves (1980s-1990s)

  • The media portrayed dance music events as dangerous sites of drug use, violence, and moral decline

  • Led to the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act (1994), restricting unlicensed gatherings and music with a 'repetitive beat'

• Child sexual abuse (1990s-2000s)

  • High-profile cases, e.g., Sarah Payne (2000), intensified public concern

  • The media framed paedophiles as ever-present threats, often exaggerating risks

  • Vigilante action followed (some against innocent people)

  • Triggered policy responses, including the Child Sex Offender Disclosure Scheme (often called 'Sarah’s Law')

• Knife crime (2000s)

  • Headlines about youth knife murders drove tougher stop-and-search, taser rollout, and stiffer sentences

  • Met Police Operation Blunt 2 and the use of knife arches in hotspots/schools symbolised a crackdown

  • There is debate over whether such measures reduce violence or simply amplify the labelling of young, often Black, men

• Asylum seekers & migrants (1990s–present)

  • Periodic framing as threats to jobs, housing and culture - classic 'folk devil' construction

  • Sensational headlines (e.g., 'swarms, invasion') magnify fear and legitimate tighter border and benefits controls

  • Critics argue media coverage routinely overstates numbers/costs, stoking moral panic rather than reflecting evidence

• Terrorism (2000s–present)

  • Post-9/11 (2001) and 7/7 London (2005) coverage often linked 'terrorism' to Muslims, feeding Islamophobia and surveillance policies

  • Spikes in anti-Muslim hate incidents after attacks illustrate how media framing can widen the panic to entire communities

Causes of moral panics

Interactionism

• Cohen argues that moral panics often occur during times of social change (e.g., economic downturns, rising immigration)

• Change is seen as undermining the traditional social order, creating widespread uncertainty and anxiety

• A moral panic is society’s attempt to reassert authority and control over groups seen as a threat

Example: Mods and rockers

• Context: In post-war Britain, young people’s affluence, consumerism and hedonism clashed with the values of the older generation, who had lived through the austerity of the 1930s–40s

• Folk devils: The mods and rockers were portrayed as violent and deviant youth gangs

• Boundary crisis: Cohen described this as a 'boundary crisis', where people were unsure of the line between acceptable and unacceptable behaviour

• Impact: Media exaggeration and tougher policing created a deviance amplification spiral that reinforced the panic

Functionalism

• Moral panics can be understood as a response to anomie (normlessness) caused by social change

• By dramatising threats through the creation of folk devils, the media raises collective consciousness and reasserts core values

• This strengthens social solidarity, reminding people of shared norms and boundaries

Example: 7/7 London terrorist attack

• Context: The shock of coordinated bombings created widespread fear and uncertainty

• Folk devil: The Media and officials framed violent extremists as a clear threat to the community

• Collective consciousness: National rituals (e.g., minutes of silence), public statements of unity, and shared mourning brought people together

• Reasserting core values: Emphasis on resilience, community safety, and the rule of law; expansion of counter-terror powers framed as protecting core values

Neo-Marxism

• Hall et al. (1979) argue that the ruling class can deliberately engineer moral panics

• They function as a way to divide and rule the working class, often along racial or cultural lines

• Moral panics also serve to distract attention from deeper structural problems, such as economic crises

Example: Asylum seekers & migrants

• Distraction from structural issues: Heavy media focus on migration can draw attention away from problems like low pay, rising cost of living, and growing wealth inequality

• Divide and rule: By framing migrants as a 'problem', the media can pit groups against each other (e.g., citizens vs. migrants), which weakens solidarity among ordinary people

• Media concentration: According to The Media Reform Coalition (2023) (opens in a new tab), UK media ownership is highly concentrated:

  • DMG Media (Daily Mail, Metro, i)

  • News UK (The Sun, The Times)

  • Reach (Daily Mirror, Daily Express, Daily Star)

• Together, these three companies control around 90% of national newspaper circulation, giving them significant power to set the news agenda across print, broadcast and online

Cyber-crime & moral panics

• New technologies often trigger moral panics because they are unfamiliar and fast-changing

• The Internet has been accused of corrupting young people and undermining public morality

• Wall (2001) identifies four types of cybercrime:

  • Cyber-trespass (e.g., hacking, spreading viruses)

  • Cyber-deception/theft (e.g., fraud, identity theft)

  • Cyber-pornography

  • Cyber-violence (e.g., cyberbullying, hate speech)

• Media exaggeration of online threats (e.g., hackers, cyber-paedophiles) fuels panic

• At the same time, the Internet enables new forms of surveillance and control, such as digital fingerprinting and monitoring emails

Evaluation of moral panics

Strengths

• Highlights media power

  • Munice (1987) notes that moral panic theory emphasises how the media shapes public perceptions of crime and deviance by amplifying certain behaviours

  • It shows that the media has the power to label groups as 'folk devils', which can influence political decisions and public attitudes

• Explains social reactions

  • The theory explains why authorities often respond with harsher policing, new laws, or 'crackdowns' following media-led panics

  • It highlights the process of labelling and deviance amplification, showing how moral panics escalate problems instead of solving them

Criticisms

• Left realist critique

  • Some problems are real, not exaggerated

  • Terrorism, knife crime, or child sexual abuse are genuine threats, so people’s fear is not always irrational

  • The theory assumes all reactions are 'disproportionate' when sometimes they reflect real risks

• Postmodernist critique

  • Audiences are more media-literate and diverse; people interpret news differently and don’t always believe media exaggerations

  • Social media offers multiple perspectives, weakening the impact of traditional media-led panics

• Normalisation

  • McRobbie and Thornton (1995) argue that repeated 'panics' have less effect because audiences become desensitised

  • Many lifestyle choices (e.g., cohabitation, youth subcultures) are no longer universally viewed as deviant, making it harder for the media to spark panic