Functionalism (AQA A Level Sociology): Revision Note

Functionalism: a consensus theory

• Functionalism is a structural theory

  • It sees society as a stable system based on consensus

  • It views social institutions such as the family, education, and religion as interdependent parts that work together to maintain social order

• Functionalism is a modernist theory

  • This is because it argues that large-scale social structures (e.g., the economy and the state) shape how society functions and influence individual behaviour

Émile Durkheim's key ideas

• Durkheim developed the core ideas of functionalism, focusing on the effects of rapid social change

  • In traditional societies, a strong collective conscience and limited division of labour created unity and social cohesion

  • Modern industrial societies introduced a complex division of labour, which increased individual differences and weakened social solidarity

• Durkheim argued that such rapid change can lead to anomie

  • This is a state of normlessness where old values break down before new ones are established, threatening value consensus

Talcott Parsons' key ideas

• Parsons (1961) extended Durkheim’s work and developed functionalism as a systematic theory of society in the mid-20th century

• He compared society to a biological organism (e.g., the human body) in what’s known as the organic analogy

• This helps explain how different parts of society work together to maintain stability:

Functional prerequisites

• Parsons used the organic analogy to identify four basic needs every society must meet to survive and maintain stability:

• Parsons describes adaptation and goal attainment as instrumental needs – this refers to the means to an end

  • E.g., producing food to sustain the population

• He describes integration and latency as expressive needs, as they involve the channelling of emotions

  • E.g., coping with stress in a way that avoids societal dysfunction

Functionalism & social change

• Parsons (1961) argued that social change is a key part of functionalist theory and occurs through gradual, adaptive processes

• Societies evolve from traditional to modern types

  • This occurs through a process called structural differentiation

• In traditional societies:

  • Status is ascribed at birth

  • Relationships are personal, such as between mother and child

  • Values are particularistic – people are treated based on group membership

  • A collective orientation dominates – individuals prioritise the needs of the group

• In modern societies:

  • Status is achieved through effort and individual success

  • Relationships are contractual, like those between employers and employees

  • Values are universalistic – everybody is treated by the same standard

  • Individuals act in self-interest, placing personal goals above group needs

Merton’s internal critique of Parsons

• Robert Merton supported functionalism but challenged Parsons’ assumptions

  • Merton argued that society is more complex and less harmonious than Parsons suggested

Universal functionalism

• Parsons' view:

  • Every part of society performs positive functions that benefit society as a whole

• Merton’s critique:

  • Some institutions can be dysfunctional or benefit certain groups at the expense of others

    • E.g., the education system may benefit the middle class more than the working class, reinforcing inequality rather than promoting meritocracy

Indispensability

• Parsons' view:

  • All institutions (e.g., the nuclear family, religion) are essential and irreplaceable for meeting society’s needs

• Merton’s critique:

  • There are functional alternatives—different structures can perform the same role

    • E.g., single-parent families or extended families can also carry out primary socialisation, not just the traditional nuclear family

Functional unity

• Parsons' view:

  • Society is a tightly integrated system where every part affects all others—a change in one institution impacts the rest

• Merton’s critique:

  • Some parts of society are functionally autonomous and operate independently

    • E.g., the education system may undergo reforms (e.g., curriculum changes) without necessarily affecting the legal system or religion

Manifest and latent functions

• Parsons' view:

  • He focused primarily on the intended (manifest) functions of institutions

• Merton’s critique:

  • He introduced the distinction between:

    • Manifest functions – deliberate and recognised (e.g., education teaches skills)

    • Latent functions – unintended and potentially harmful (e.g., schools may also reinforce class divisions)

    • E.g., the mass media may intend to inform the public (manifest), but may also spread stereotypes or misinformation (latent)

Evaluation of functionalism

Strengths

• Highlights the importance of social order

  • It shows how institutions like education and the family work together to maintain social cohesion and prevent disorder

Criticisms

• Logical criticisms

  • Functionalism is teleological—it assumes things exist because of their outcomes (e.g., education exists because it benefits society)

  • It fails to explain how functions arise in the first place

• Unscientific

  • Functionalism is not falsifiable, making it unscientific

    • E.g., functionalists see deviance as both dysfunctional and functional, which means that the theory cannot be disproved

• Conflict perspective

  • Marxists argue that functionalism takes a rose-tinted view of society that ignores class conflict and inequality

    • E.g., education legitimises inequality rather than promoting true meritocracy

  • Stability in society is the result of the dominant class being able to prevent change by using coercion or ideological manipulation

• Action perspective

  • Dennis Wong criticises functionalism for being an overly deterministic view and treating people as passive

  • The action approach argues that individuals can resist and shape society through interaction

    • E.g., Willis’ (1977) study of the 'lads' shows how students resist school values

• Postmodernist critique

  • Functionalism is outdated; it assumes universal norms still exist in a fragmented, diverse society

  • It fails to account for individualism, multiculturalism, and personal choice in a postmodern society