The Whale Rider: Context (Edexcel IGCSE English Literature): Revision Note
Exam code: 4ET1
The Whale Rider historical context
Environmentalism
At the time Ihimaera’s novel, The Whale Rider, was published in 1987, there was international concern about the natural environment:
Specifically, there was protest and activism against nuclear energy, nuclear bomb testing in the Pacific Ocean, and cruelty to animals
Greenpeace is an example of an organisation that took action against whaling
The novel is set in Whangara, New Zealand:
New Zealand was a founding member of the International Whaling Commission (an organisation dedicated to conserving whale populations)
How this links to The Whale Rider | |
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Environmentalism | The novel describes how the migrating whale pod is affected by chemical testing near Moruroa and must change direction. When they are beached, the humans’ dramatic rescue of the whale pod can be seen as Ihimaera arguing for human intervention in ecological crises. |
Colonialism
Ihimaera’s novel, The Whale Rider, examines the impact of colonisation on the Māori people:
By the 19th century, Europeans had arrived in New Zealand and the Pacific Islands, and New Zealand was annexed as a British colony
The Treaty of Waitangi of 1840 was created to protect Māori land and rights:
However, its legal standing was undermined in 1877 by a court ruling that denied Māori customary rights under the Treaty, and the Māori language was outlawed
Papua New Guinea, previously a British colony too, became governed by Australia in 1902, though they continued exploitative European plantations
In the 1970s, activists and students in New Zealand launched a campaign that pressured the government into allowing some Māori land and cultural rights
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Colonial attitudes | Rawiri leaves New Zealand to go to Sydney, Australia, where he meets Māoris struggling to maintain their identity in a globalised, post-colonial world. Rawiri also encounters racist attitudes on a European plantation in Papua New Guinea which exposes the entrenched discrimination as a result of colonisation. |
Protest and activism | Koro Apirana, the Māori chief, represents the determination and action taken in the 20th century to resist globalisation and restore rights and land for indigenous people. His travels around New Zealand, creating schools that teach Māori language and tradition, reflect the real activism that occurred around the time the novel was published. |
The Whale Rider social context
Māori culture
Set in the mid-1980s during the Māori Renaissance, a movement to invigorate Māori language and culture, Ihimaera’s novel The Whale Rider explores Māori legend and ancestry set in a modern world:
The novel relates the Māori legend of a whale rider who journeyed to a new life in Aotearoa, New Zealand, on the back of a whale
Paikea, or Kahutia Te Rangi, is a prominent ancestor of the Ngāti Porou iwi (tribe), the second largest in New Zealand
The novel refers to New Zealand by its Māori name, Aotearoa, which means “the land of the long white cloud”
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Māori language | Ihimaera uses the Māori language throughout the novel, often as repeated prayers or chants, such as hui e, haumi e, taiki e (join together and let it be done). This is a consistent message about the Māori philosophy of “oneness”. |
Māori culture | By exploring a Māori tribe in Whangara, New Zealand, Ihimaera raises the profile of their cultural identity. Kahu is named after the real Māori legend of Kahuti Te Rangi, and Porourangi is also named after the prominent Ngāti Porou tribe. |
Gender
At the time of The Whale Rider’s publication, there had been a second wave of feminism that advocated for a more equal workplace. Nevertheless, much of this movement focused on Western societies. Ihimaera explores traditional patriarchy inherent in the Māori culture, and advocates for equality through strong female characters who portray admirable leadership qualities while maintaining strong links to their heritage:
Domestic rights for women had been a key aspect of the second wave of feminism from the 1960s through to the 1990s:
This focused on issues such as divorce, sexuality, and reproductive rights
Western music and literature promoted gender fluidity and equality
Although female leaders existed in Māori culture, such as Mihi Kōtukutuku Stirling and Muriwai, entrenched patriarchal custom still influenced male leaders
How this links to The Whale Rider | |
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Second-wave feminism | Nanny Flowers represents a modern woman in a traditional Māori village who resists and rebels against patriarchal values. She humorously threatens divorce and often challenges his authority, as well as encouraging Kahu that “girls can do anything” |
Māori tradition | Koro Apirana represents a patriarchal leader in the village who resists change by shunning his female granddaughter. The novel also portrays the sacred Māori ceremony of burying Kahu’s umbilical cord as a symbol of her connection to her homeland, and Nanny Flowers makes reference to female Māori leaders. |
The Whale Rider literary context
Witi Ihimaera is a prolific Māori writer whose work, written in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, often explores the indigenous culture of New Zealand, as well as stories about family and identity.
Bildungsroman
A bildungsroman is a coming-of-age story that follows the development of a young protagonist as they grow up:
They often depict identity struggles and raise important debates about societal injustice
A key feature of a bildungsroman is the illustration of a character whose resilience leads to emotional maturity, and a cycle-breaking destiny
How this links to The Whale Rider | |
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Bildungsroman | Both Kahu and Rawiri, as protagonist and narrator, struggle with their identity under the rigidity of Koro’s leadership. By staying true to who they are, they are able to grow in maturity and impact change. Kahu’s destiny also represents the breaking of a cycle: despite patriarchal expectations, she becomes a female whale rider |
Magical realism
Magical realism is a genre of art and literature that portrays real life situations alongside magical or supernatural elements:
Magical and fantastical qualities, perhaps in the descriptions or characterisations, are weaved into a realistic, often modern setting:
The genre challenges perceptions of reality to highlight spiritual ideas
Boundaries are blurred between real places and the human form, the natural and the supernatural
How this links to The Whale Rider | |
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Magical realism | The novel’s fantastical elements, in the narration of the Māori legend, Kahu’s supernatural powers, and the talking whales, are weaved into realistic settings, like Bondi Beach in Australia, and colloquial dialogue in the modern Māori village. This helps enhance readers’ understanding of Māori culture, as well as giving added symbolic significance to characters’ thoughts and actions. |
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