How can cities become fairer and more sustainable? (WJEC Eduqas GCSE Geography B): Revision Note

Specification links

The notes on this page cover 1.1.3 of the WJEC Eduqas B specification – What strategies can be used to manage the impacts of urbanisation in global cities?

• Strategies which aim to reduce inequality and improve the lives of people living in global cities (which should be the same cities chosen in 1.1.2).

• Coverage must include: (a) In the LIC/NIC city: self-help schemes, slum clearance programmes, housing projects and mass transit schemes. (b) In the HIC city: strategies to create sustainable urban environments.

Sustainability goals

• Urban sustainability means creating cities that are:

  • Economically productive – providing jobs and supporting innovation

  • Socially inclusive – offering fair access to housing, healthcare, education, and transport

  • Environmentally responsible – reducing pollution, waste, and resource use

Global goals

• These ideas reflect the UN Sustainable Development Goal 11:

Common sustainability challenges

• Rapid urbanisation leads to overcrowding and housing shortages

• Poverty and inequality result in unequal access to services and opportunities

• Transport and congestion lead to high emissions and wasted time

• Pollution and waste damage urban health and ecosystems

• Climate change increases flooding and heatwave risks

What makes a city sustainable and fair

• Mixed-income housing and affordable homes

• Efficient public transport reduces car dependency

• Access to green spaces for all communities

• Participation in planning and decision-making

• Balanced economic growth that benefits all social groups and does the least harm to the environment

AWAITING IMAGE

Balancing social, economic and environmental aspects to achieve sustainable cities

• Global cities face complex challenges in balancing fairness and sustainability

• Strategies vary by development level:

  • NICs like Mumbai prioritise housing, transport, and poverty reduction

  • HICs like Sydney focus on renewable energy, waste reduction, and inclusion

Improving life in Mumbai, India (NIC)

Background

• Mumbai is India’s largest city with a population of around 20 million

  • It is the capital city of the Maharashtra state on the western coast of India

• Originally, Mumbai was several separate islands

• These were joined through large-scale land reclamation and causeway projects

• Mumbai has more millionaires and billionaires than any other Indian city, but also the highest rates of poverty

  • Mumbai contributes 31% of India's entire tax revenue

• It is a major centre for finance, manufacturing, and entertainment, but faces huge challenges from rapid urbanisation

• Around 40% of residents live in informal settlements such as Dharavi (UN Habitat, 2023 (opens in a new tab))

• Mumbai has air transport links to many world cities and is popular with international tourists

• Mumbai's urban growth is a combination of

  • Natural increase through high birth rates

  • Rural-to-urban migration – an estimated 60% of people moving to Mumbai are from villages within the state of Maharashtra

  • Most migrants are male, and aged 20-21 years

• The city’s growth has created both opportunity and inequality, with poor housing, congestion, and pollution affecting millions

Self-help schemes

• SPARC (Society for the Promotion of Area Resource Centres) and Mahila Milan

  • Works with residents to design and upgrade homes in Dharavi

  • Provides micro-loans, training, and building materials

  • Encourages households to use durable materials and install sanitation and electricity

• Advantages:

  • Empowers residents and improves living conditions at a low cost

  • Builds community ownership and local skills

  • Reduces the spread of disease and improves safety

• Limitations:

  • Only small-scale, slow progress due to limited funding

  • Legal land ownership is often unclear

Slum clearance and redevelopment

• Mumbai Slum Rehabilitation Authority (SRA)

  • Replaces informal settlements with high-rise apartments

  • Frees up valuable central land for commercial use

  • Provides secure housing, sanitation, and infrastructure

• Advantages:

  • Permanent housing with electricity, water, and toilets

  • Improves city image and attracts investors

• Limitations:

  • Many families relocated far from jobs and schools

  • Loss of community networks and the informal economy

  • Only a fraction of 'slum' residents benefit; some are excluded

Housing projects

• Mumbai Development Plan 2034

  • Plans for one million affordable homes using public and private land

  • Focus on vertical development to reduce urban sprawl

  • Allocates land for schools, hospitals, and open spaces

• Advantages:

  • Addresses housing shortage

  • Integrates low-income families into formal housing markets

  • There are plans to provide free housing with essential services for displaced residents, affecting around 68,000 people

• Limitations:

  • Land values remain high, limiting true affordability

  • Implementation is uneven; bureaucracy slows progress

  • Many residents and business owners are worried that high-rise developments will erode the community spirit and have a negative influence on the informal economy

  • To qualify for new housing, residents must prove their informal homes were built before January 2000, raising concerns among long-term residents

Mass transit and infrastructure

• The World Health Organisation (WHO) ranks Mumbai as the fourth most polluted megacity in the world

• Car ownership is expensive, which leads many people to rely on public transport

  • This reliance contributes to congestion and air pollution, particularly from older, inefficient vehicles

• Mumbai's rail network is the busiest in the world

  • The rail network spans 465 km and carries over 7.5 million commuters daily

  • Trains are overcrowded during peak hours, with commuters often squeezed into carriages

  • More than 2000 people die annually from train-related accidents

    • Most deaths are caused by passengers crossing tracks, sitting on train roofs and being electrocuted by overhead cables, or hanging from doors and windows

• The Mumbai Metro and Monorail are expanding to link suburbs and business districts

  • India's first monorail aims to provide a sustainable and efficient alternative to traditional road-based transportation

  • Mumbai Metro connects the Bandra Kurla apartment complex in Mumbai, the International Airport, and northern residential areas

  • The system aims to transport 17 million passengers daily and hopes to reduce bus and taxi pressure

    • It aims to cut private car journeys by half a million daily and promote healthier living with bus and pedestrian pathways

• Advantages:

  • Cuts travel times for commuters

  • Reduces pollution and traffic congestion

  • Connects poorer districts to employment zones

• Limitations:

  • Construction displacement and environmental damage from coastal reclamation

  • Public transport is still overcrowded; ticket costs are high for low earners

Mumbai's bus rapid transit system (BRTS)

• BRTS stations enhance boarding and alighting, with features such as raised platforms and off-board fare collection

• It offers a better option for commuters

• It promotes sustainable travel by reducing private vehicle use

• Advantages:

  • The system provides efficient public transport

  • It features dedicated bus lanes and priority at intersections

  • The high-capacity buses carry more passengers, which improves reliability and speed while reducing congestion and pollution

  • BRTS is cost-effective and uses existing infrastructure

• Limitations:

  • Construction displacement and environmental damage

  • Public transport is still overcrowded

Evaluation – Mumbai

• Significant improvements in housing, health, and mobility for some residents

• Rapid population growth continues to outpace development

• Inequality remains deep — the city’s poorest still lack secure housing and clean water

Effectiveness in achieving sustainability

• Environmental:

  • Mumbai’s transport schemes are reducing pollution, but ongoing congestion and waste management remain problems

• Economic:

  • Mumbai attracts investment and tourism, creating jobs and supporting the national economy

  • Benefits are uneven, such as informal workers facing continued insecurity

• Social:

  • Mumbai’s Non-governmental Organisation (NGO)-led housing and health initiatives empower citizens, but need more government coordination

Sustainability in Sydney, Australia (HIC City)

Background

• Sydney is Australia’s largest city and a leading global centre for finance, tourism, and education

• Population: 5.5 million (2024)

• Sydney has a high quality of life, but issues include:

  • Housing affordability

  • Urban sprawl

  • Transport congestion

• The city’s sustainability goals are outlined in the Sustainable Sydney 2030 Vision (City of Sydney, 2024)

Sustainable neighbourhood planning

• Green Square Urban Renewal Project

  • Redevelopment of 278 hectares of former industrial land, which includes:

    • Energy-efficient housing

    • Cycle paths

    • Green roofs

    • Public squares

  • Mixed-use design encourages walking and reduces commuting distances

• Advantages:

  • Creates over 20,000 new jobs and 60,000 homes

  • Reduces carbon footprint through renewable energy and smart water recycling

  • Encourages inclusive, community-focused design

• Limitations:

  • Property prices remain high; affordable housing is limited for low-income groups

  • Ongoing construction causes disruption

Integrated transport systems

• Sydney Metro and Light Rail Projects

  • The Sydney Metro Northwest carries up to 40,000 passengers per hour

  • Parramatta Light Rail connects the western suburbs to the CBD

  • Contactless ticketing and real-time apps improve convenience

• Advantages:

  • Reduces congestion, emissions, and travel time

  • Improves accessibility for all income groups

  • Supports economic growth through better connectivity

• Limitations:

  • High costs and long construction time

  • Accessibility varies between suburbs

Waste and energy management

• Zero Waste by 2030 Strategy

  • Aims to recycle or reuse 90% of household waste

  • Waste-to-energy plants reduce landfill dependency

  • Solar energy investment across public buildings

• Advantages:

  • Cleaner environment and lower emissions

  • Encourages public participation in sustainability

• Limitations:

  • Population growth threatens targets

  • Recycling markets depend on global demand

Social inclusion and community initiatives

• Affordable Housing and Liveable Sydney Projects

  • Developments include low-cost units for key workers (teachers, nurses)

  • Access to green spaces and cultural facilities in all suburbs

  • Indigenous recognition in city design and public art

• Advantages:

  • Promotes equality and cultural diversity

  • Supports health and well-being through inclusive planning

• Limitations:

  • Housing costs remain a major barrier for younger and low-income residents

Evaluation – Sydney

• Strong commitment to sustainability and inclusivity

• Global model for integrated transport and renewable energy use

• Housing affordability and spatial inequality persist in outer suburbs

Effectiveness in achieving sustainability

• Environmental:

  • Sydney’s renewable energy projects and zero-waste policies are cutting emissions significantly

• Economic:

  • Sydney's investment and tourism boost local and national economies

  • These benefits are unevenly distributed, as low-income Sydney renters remain insecure

• Social:

  • Sydney’s inclusive community design and public art projects strengthen cultural identity and cohesion