Obstacles & Effectiveness (Edexcel A Level Politics): Revision Note

Obstacles to international co-operation

• There are many obstacles to international cooperation 

  • Realists might argue that states will always prioritise their own interests and sovereignty

    • Any form of international cooperation is superficial

  • Liberals might argue that because climate change is a global political challenge which affects all

    • States must find a way to overcome obstacles and co-operate

1. Sovereignty

• Sovereignty means states have the right to govern themselves without outside interference

• States may resist international rules if they limit domestic control

  • For example, China and India argue that climate targets threaten their right to develop

  • Some states reject human rights interventions, claiming they are internal matters (e.g. Myanmar)

2. Economic strength

• Wealthier states can afford environmental protection and poverty reduction more easily

• Poorer states often prioritise economic growth over climate or labour standards

  • For example, least developed countries produce under 1% of global emissions, but suffer most from climate change

  • Rich states are criticised for failing to meet the UN target of 0.7% of GNI on foreign aid (few consistently do)

3. Political grievances

• Past conflicts, colonialism or mistrust reduce willingness to cooperate

• Some developing states argue that Western countries caused most historical emissions

  • This creates tension in climate talks, such as at COP summits

  • Political rivalries (e.g. USA–China) can block cooperation on global issues

4. Disagreements about duties and responsibilities

• States disagree over who should do more to tackle global problems

• The principle of common but differentiated responsibilities recognises unequal blame and capacity

  • Developed states produced around 70% of historical CO₂ emissions but argue they should have lighter obligations

5. Scepticism regarding climate change

• Some leaders and the public question the existence or severity of climate change

• This reduces support for international agreements

  • For example, Donald Trump withdrew the USA from the Paris Agreement in 2017 (rejoined in 2021)

  • Climate scepticism weakens domestic and international commitment

Global civil society and non-state actors and contemporary global issues

1. Human rights

• Many non-state actors are specifically committed to monitoring and protecting human rights

• There are countless groups and individuals addressing human rights at all levels of global politics, from local to international

Non-governmental organisations (NGOs)

Social movements

Global civil society

• With globalisation and improvements in transportation and communication technologies, ideas about human rights are widely shared

• This has led to a greater global awareness of such issues as LGBTQ+ rights and gender equality

2. Environmental Issues

• There's also a range of non-state actors focused on environmental issues

Non-governmental organisations (NGOs)

Social movements

Global civil society

• As with human rights a greater global awareness of environmental concerns has spread through social media and travel, such as

  • A greater awareness of the significance of deforestation and climate change

Evaluation

• The role and significance of these civil society organisations and non-state actors in addressing these challenges is difficult to measure 

  • Ultimately, human rights and climate action need to be protected and enforced by law

  • In democratic states citizens can demand government action be taken

    • Without the support of state government, laws will not be changed 

  • Some argue that civil society and non-state actors use soft power to try to affect change

    • Although this can be effective it is the power of the state to enforce and protect human rights and the environment