Rights & Responsibilities in Challenging Global Situations (Edexcel GCSE Citizenship Studies): Revision Note

Balancing rights and responsibilities

• Balancing rights and responsibilities in challenging global situations means ensuring that human rights are protected even during conflict or crisis

  • Civilians still have the right to life, safety and dignity, regardless of war or instability

• However, rights come with responsibilities

  • Governments and armed forces have a responsibility to protect civilians and must follow international rules when using force, including the laws of war

• In global crises, rights can sometimes come into conflict

  • For example, governments may limit some freedoms to protect national security or public safety, but these limits should be lawful and proportionate

• International humanitarian law helps to balance rights and responsibilities by setting rules that reduce harm during conflict

  • It aims to protect civilians, prisoners of war and aid workers

• The UK and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) also have responsibilities in challenging global situations

  • The UK must act in line with international law, while NGOs provide humanitarian aid and support vulnerable people

International law in conflict situations

• International Humanitarian Law (IHL) applies to all those involved in a conflict and aims to

  •  Protect people not directly involved in the conflict, such as the sick and wounded and prisoners of war

  • Sets out limits to warfare activity, such as attacks on civilians and certain types of weapons

• It also requires humanitarian aid to be made available to those who need it

International humanitarian law and the rules of war

• The two key documents relating to the conduct of war are the Geneva Convention, and the Hague Convention, which in 1907 codified the rules of land warfare

The Geneva Convention

• The Geneva Conventions were first created in 1864 following the Battle of Solferino, where the suffering of wounded soldiers identified the need for international rules to protect those injured in war

  • Their original aim was to ensure that wounded and sick soldiers received medical care, regardless of which side they were fighting for

• Over time, the Conventions were extended and amended between 1906 and 1929 to respond to changes in warfare, including the use of poison gas and the need for clearer rules on the treatment of prisoners of war

  • A major revision took place in 1949, creating four modern Geneva Conventions that expanded protection to civilians, prisoners of war and wounded members of armed forces at sea and on land

  • Further changes were made in 1977 and 2005 to address newer forms of conflict, including biological warfare, the impact of landmines and the special protection of children in armed conflicts

• Today, the Geneva Conventions form the foundation of International Humanitarian Law

  • They set out rules designed to limit suffering during war and protect those who are not fighting

• The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) acts as the custodian of the Conventions, helping to monitor compliance, support victims of conflict and promote respect for humanitarian law worldwide

Breaches of the Geneva Convention

The International Criminal Court

•  At the end of the Second World War, the victorious  allies set up international tribunals to try the leaders of the defeated countries for war crimes and crimes against humanity

  • They established a new international set of rules about holding those who start wars to account for their actions

• In the 1990’s, an international tribunal was established following the wars in the former Yugoslavia and the civil war in Rwanda

• In 1998, 120 countries signed  the Rome Statute

  • This set up the International Criminal Court (ICC) which meets in The Hague

  • It also established what was meant by a war crime

The role of NGOs

• Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) are independent bodies that are not controlled by governments

  • They play an important part in responding to conflicts, disasters and human rights issues around the world

What are NGOs?

• Many NGOs are registered charities and may operate nationally (within one country) or internationally (across many countries)

• Although independent, many NGOs receive government funding and often work alongside governments, the EU, the UN, or other international organisations

What NGOs do in international disputes

• Providing humanitarian aid

  • NGOs often provide basics, such as food, shelter and medical support, during conflicts

    • E.g. The Red Cross provided emergency medical care and shelters for civilians during the Syrian civil war

• Protecting human rights

  • NGOs report abuses and put pressure on governments to intervene

    • E.g. Amnesty International published reports on the treatment of political prisoners in Myanmar and pressured the government to release them

• Supporting refugees and displaced people

  • NGOs provide advice and resources for those fleeing violence or persecution

    • E.g. The Refugee Council helps refugees arriving in the UK by providing housing and legal advice as well as language support

• Raising awareness

  • NGOs launch campaigns and engage in global activism

    • E.g. Oxfam campaigns to highlight global poverty and inequalities through its Make Poverty History campaign

• Offering expert support and evidence

  • NGOSs provide their expertise to international bodies such as the UN

    • E.g. Médecins Sans Frontières (Doctors Without Borders) giving medical evidence to the UN about health crises in conflict zones such as Yemen

The UK's role in international disagreements

• The UK plays an important part in helping to prevent, manage and resolve international disputes

1. Diplomacy

• The UK uses diplomatic channels to calm tensions and encourage peaceful solutions

  • As a permanent member of the UN Security Council, the UK helps write and vote on resolutions about conflicts, sanctions and peacekeeping

  • UK embassies across the world allow British diplomats to negotiate directly with other governments during crises

2. Humanitarian aid

• The UK gives emergency assistance when disputes create suffering, such as food shortages, refugee crises and lack of medical care

  • It is part of groups like the Group of Friends for Action on Conflict and Hunger, which focus on helping civilians affected by conflict

3. Military support

• The UK sometimes provides military aid when disputes escalate and security is threatened

  • A current example is the UK’s major role in supplying military equipment and training to Ukraine to help it defend itself

4. International co-operation

• The UK works with global organisations to address disputes and prevent them spreading

  • Bodies such as the G7 and the World Bank allow the UK to work with other leading nations to support countries in crisis, rebuild economies and reduce the risk of further conflict

5. Legal routes

• London is one of the world’s most respected centres for commercial and maritime law

  • International companies and governments often choose UK courts to settle disputes because they are viewed as fair, neutral and highly skilled

  • This provides a peaceful alternative to conflict and encourages countries to resolve disagreements through legal processes instead of violence

Methods to resolve international disputes

• The UK plays a major role in dealing with international disputes because it is a leading member of organisations such as the UN, NATO, the G7 and the Commonwealth

• It uses a mixture of soft power and hard power to influence events and help resolve conflicts

Soft power versus hard power

Methods the UK uses to resolve international disputes

1. Mediation (soft power)

• Mediation brings different sides of a dispute together so they can try to agree a peaceful solution

  • Sometimes the parties do not meet directly, and mediators communicate separately with each group

  • E.g. The Good Friday Agreement (1998) involved the UK working with American mediators to help resolve conflict in Northern Ireland

2. Sanctions (soft and hard power)

• Sanctions are penalties placed on a country to encourage it to change its behaviour.

  • Soft power sanctions include sporting or cultural boycotts

    • These signal disapproval without causing major economic harm

    • E.g. For many years, the UK refused to play South Africa in international sports such as cricket and rugby to pressure the government to end its racist apartheid system

  • Hard power sanctions include refusing to buy goods from or sell goods to a country

    • These put direct economic pressure on governments

    • E.g. The UK and its allies banned the export of military equipment to Russia after the 2022 invasion of Ukraine

• Individuals may also take part through boycotts by refusing to buy imported goods from a country involved in wrongdoing

3. Use of force (hard power)

• This is the most extreme method and involves military action

  • The UK usually acts with other countries through NATO or UN-led operations

  • E.g. The Falklands War (1982) was a unilateral UK military operation to remove Argentinian forces from the islands