Land-Use in Urban Areas in Developed Countries (SQA National 5 Geography): Revision Note

Specification checklist

This page covers what you need to know from the SQA National 5 geography specification to answer questions on:

• Characteristics of land-use zones in cities in the developed world

• Recent developments in the CBD, inner city, rural/urban fringe in developed world cities

Urban land-use zones in developed countries

• Urban areas are towns and cities

• Cities can be divided into zones

• Zones will have similar land values and characteristics

• Many towns and cities grow outwards, often in a series of rings, from a historic centre or core to an urban fringe

• Each zone grows due to the needs of the city during its development, over time

• As a general rule, all towns and cities, regardless of place or level of development, show the same four features:

  • A central core: the oldest part of a city

    • Home to the central business district (CBD), e.g. banks, retail and commercial offices

  • An inner-city ring: also known as the twilight zone

    • Older, terraced 'worker' housing 

    • Older industrial areas

    • Areas are centred around transport links and access

  • A suburban ring: residential area

    • Semi-detached and detached housing with gardens

    • Tree-lined avenues and cul-de-sacs

    • Smaller retail premises

  • An urban fringe: outer edges of the city 

    • The spread of urban areas erodes the countryside

    • Housing is clustered into estates

    • Some industrial land use

    • Accessibility is best

• Other similar characteristics of modern urban settlements include:

  • The age of the built-up area decreases from the core to the fringe

  • The density of building developments decreases from the core to the fringe

  • Grandeur, function, design and style changes across the zones

Burgess's concentric zone model, 1925

• One of the earliest models to explain urban social structures, based on the city of Chicago, USA

• It suggests that as cities develop and grow, they move outwards in concentric zones

• Business activity is within the CBD, as this is the most accessible point in the city

• Next is the “zone of transition”, with older houses converted into light industry and flats

• In-migrants tend to be drawn to this zone for its cheap housing

• Housing improves with distance from the CBD, allowing movement away from the centre and pollution 

• High-class residential housing is occupied by the middle class, with its newer and larger houses

Hoyt's sector model, 1939

• Hoyt, a student of Burgess, stated that business activity is still within the CBD

  • Public transport routes terminated at or near the CBD, giving access for most people

• Industry was noted to follow particular transport routes or corridors

• High-class residential areas are often developed where there are distinct physical or social attractions (e.g. river)

• Low-class residential areas were therefore confined to unfavourable locations (ugly, fewer transport links, etc.)

Multi-nuclei model, 1945

• Harris and Ullman argued that cities do not develop around a single centre but around important, multiple nuclei

• The CBD still exists, but is not always at the centre of the city

• Low-class residential housing tends to be in areas of cheaper land around industry (heavy or light)

• High and middle-class residents can afford to avoid living next to industrial areas; these areas are normally on a different side of the city from industry

• There are areas of development outside of the main settlement, around new nuclei like out-of-town shopping centres

• The model is the first to take into consideration the complexity of the city and its surrounding area

• It considers that the CBD is not the only part of the city that affects land use

• However, it is still a simplification of urban land use and the physical landscape is not fully considered

Glasgow's land use pattern

CBD

• Glasgow's CBD has a gridiron pattern of streets

• The oldest buildings in the city are located here

• Glasgow Central and Queen's Street railway stations are located in the CBD

• Buildings, including City Hall and the main police station, are in the CBD

• Few green spaces

Inner city

• The inner city is also built in a gridiron pattern

• The residential housing is tenements

  • High-density housing

  • Multiple dwellings with shared stairwells

  • Areas such as the Gorbals

• The inner city included a range of factories such as Templeton's Carpet Factory, Argyll Motor Works, and the Gorbals Grain Mills

• Housing was next to the factories because there was no public transport

Rural-urban fringe

• Glasgow is surrounded by greenbelt land, which restricts development in these areas

• Lower-density housing

• Open green space

Changes in urban zones in developed countries

Changes to the CBD

• Every urban area changes over time and is dependent on the needs of the urban region

• What works for one city may not work for another or be relevant to a town or area

• Changes in the CBD include:

  • Pedestrian Zones

  • Shopping centres

  • Leisure

  • Redevelopment of brownfield sites

  • Improvements to safety and air quality

Pedestrian zones

• Pedestrian zones are known as car-free zones

• Buchanan Street and Argyle Street in Glasgow have been pedestrianised

• This area is now for pedestrians only

  • Traffic is severely restricted or banned

  • The aim is to provide a safe, accessible area for pedestrians to improve the volume of people for businesses

Shopping centres

• These centralise businesses for people

• They are convenient and increase spending

  • Almost all urban centres include car parks with varied shops and activities—food, clothing, cinemas, games, jewellers and more

• Many small businesses have left the CBD because they cannot afford the high rents

• Indoor shopping malls such as Buchanan Galleries and St Enoch Centre have been built to try to encourage people back to the CBD

  • They are beneficial to both shoppers and businesses

  • Costs are cut for maintenance and advertising

  • They are not affected by the weather

  • Many shops are under one roof, increasing the convenience for customers

Leisure

• Traditional urban leisure activities such as parks, museums, theatres, private clubs, opera houses, etc, now stand alongside multi-plex cinemas, IMAX, sports centres, niche marketplaces and cafes, waterfront developments and smart nightspots

  • St Enoch Centre, which has shops but also restaurants, an escape room, mini golf, bowling and a cinema, has been built in Glasgow

Brownfield sites

• Disused shops and offices are converted into desirable residential lofts or trendy places for people to meet or work

  • Candleriggs Fruit Market in Glasgow has been converted into an entertainment venue and luxury flats

Safety and air quality

• Many urban areas are now monitored through CCTV

  • Pedestrian-only zones and limited parking have all added to the safety of people in urban areas

• Low-emission zones: Vehicles entering this zone must meet the low-emission standards or pay a charge

  • The aim is to improve air quality in the CBD

Changes to the inner city

• With deindustrialisation, inner city areas have been viewed as centres of poverty and low-cost housing, waste grounds with derelict buildings 

  • This cycle of boom during the industrial era, followed by bust during deindustrialisation, resulted in urban blight

• Inner cities provide a way for companies to grow and governments to draw people back into urban areas when property value, rents, council taxes, and building restrictions rise in cost

• Redevelopment has allowed the CBD to spread, and clearance of cheap, high-rise blocks of flats has helped with the pressures of urban growth

Development and regeneration

• Regeneration and redevelopment organisations have led to significant change in the inner city

  • Clyde Gateway works with local stakeholders to improve the environment

    • Over 250 hectares of polluted and derelict land have been improved

    • New housing developments, green spaces and the 2014 Commonwealth Games athletes' village

Changes along the urban fringe

• Some of the biggest changes in the urban landscape can be seen in the rural-urban fringe

• Glasgow has experienced urban sprawl

• Growth at the urban fringe is due in part to counter-urbanisation, population growth, lack of space and spiralling land costs

• Other than new housing estates, there are also:

  • Retail parks: these have a large sphere of influence due to being easily accessible, ample free parking, the concentration of businesses in one place, longer opening hours, and a wide choice of goods

    • Examples in Glasgow include Glasgow Fort, The Forge and the Great Western Retail Park

  • Industrial estates: space for expansion, purpose-built road networks, cheaper land, sited away from housing

    • Examples in Glasgow include Queenslie and Gartcosh industrial estates

  • Business parks: space is created for a nicer working environment, easier access and commute for workers

    • The area is specifically created for office space and includes a conference hotel

    • The RBS (Royal Bank of Scotland) has located its headquarters at Gogarburn

  • Science parks are purpose-built to encourage research and development (R&D), high-tech industries and other quaternary activities, close to a university and transport networks (including airports) to allow for knowledge transfer

  • Airports: Glasgow Airport is located to the west of Glasgow in the rural-urban fringe.

    • The increase in air traffic and low-cost carriers, airports feed into businesses on the fringe through imports and exports but also employees having easy access to businesses 

  • Motorways and ring roads such as the M8 and M80 ensure ease of access for residents, workers, lorries, buses, cars, etc.