The Market Mechanism, Market Failure & Government Intervention (AQA A Level Economics): Exam Questions

Extract B (lines 8–10) states, ‘many companies intentionally make it difficult to repair their products in order to increase sales. This is both economically inefficient and environmentally foolish; it imposes costs on the environment even though it may make sense for individual companies.’

Extract B: Is the world running out of sand?

Sand is in high demand. Sand accounts for up to 85% of all mining and the global depletion of sand is rapidly exceeding its natural renewal rate. Sand is mostly used in the construction industry to make concrete and asphalt. Chinese demand has risen significantly, reflecting the country's rapid pace of construction: it built 32.3 million houses and 4.5 million kilometres of road between 2011 and 2014. Sand also has industrial uses: it is used to make glass, electronics, and to help extract oil in the fracking industry. While market demand for industrial sand has tracked overall economic growth in the USA, the demand for fracking sand has been as volatile as oil prices.

Vast quantities of sand are dumped into the sea to reclaim land: Singapore, for example, has expanded its land area by over 20% since the 1960s. Much of this sand originates from Indonesia, where sand miners have completely erased over 20 islands since 2005. The Maldives and Kiribati have used sand to shore up their islands against rising sea levels. The United Nations forecasts that, by 2030, there will be over 40 ‘megacities’, home to more than 10 million inhabitants (up from 31 in 2016), which means more housing and infrastructure will need to be built. Also, sea levels will continue to rise and so sand will only become more sought after. But why is there a shortage when sand seems so abundant? Desert sand is too smooth, and so cannot be used for most commercial purposes. Australian sand was shipped to a faraway desert to build Dubai’s Burj Khalifa tower, made possible by cheaper transportation. Most countries have rules in place about where, and how much, sand can be mined. However, surging demand has sparked a lucrative illegal trade in many rapidly developing countries which is damaging the environment, causing pollution and harming local biodiversity.

Critics of the world’s five most valuable multinational technology firms (Google, Amazon, Apple, Facebook and Microsoft) argue that there ought to be greater government intervention to protect consumers’ interests. Several European governments are considering imposing new taxes on the revenues of such firms, rather than their profits.

For a long time, supermarkets and other commercial firms have understood the benefits of behavioural economic concepts such as choice architecture and framing. The public sector has been slow off the mark, but at last governments are now taking advantage of the opportunities provided by nudging.

‘Each time the Government imposes a minimum price or wage, the result is almost always excess supply. What matters is the extent to which this is a problem.’

In December 2018, the Competition and Markets Authority (CMA) announced a range of policies to prevent firms charging existing customers more than new customers. Firms supplying financial services, mobile phones and broadband are no longer allowed to discriminate against loyal customers renewing their contracts

According to Public Health England, poor air quality is the largest environmental risk to public health in the UK. In particular, diesel cars are estimated to be responsible for 40 000 premature deaths each year. In response, the Government announced in 2017 that it would ban the sale of new petrol and diesel cars by 2040

According to Public Health England, poor air quality is the largest environmental risk to public health in the UK. In particular, diesel cars are estimated to be responsible for 40 000 premature deaths each year. In response, the Government announced in 2017 that it would ban the sale of new petrol and diesel cars by 2040

Attempts by governments to equalise incomes are well-intentioned but counter-productive. They destroy incentives for people to lift themselves out of poverty

In 2018, the UK Government will impose a new tax on sugary drinks, aimed at tackling obesity. Behavioural economists believe that taxation alone is unlikely to be very effective in reducing consumption. By 2050, obesity is predicted to affect 60% of adult men, 50% of adult women and 25% of children. It is associated with a range of health problems, including type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease and cancer.

In 2018, the UK government will impose a new tax on sugary drinks, aimed at tackling obesity. Behavioural economists believe that taxation alone is unlikely to be very effective in reducing consumption. By 2050, obesity is predicted to affect 60% of adult men, 50% of adult women and 25% of children. It is associated with a range of health problems, including type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease and cancer.