The Growth of Education in the USSR (Edexcel A Level History): Revision Note

Summary

• This note will examine the growth of education in the USSR from 1917 to 1985

• Soviet politicians believed education was essential for

  • Building socialism

  • Creating skilled and loyal citizens

• Lenin’s early reforms aimed to

  • Expand access to education

  • Eradicate illiteracy

    • However, the disruption of the Civil War and economic pressures limited progress

• Under Stalin, education became a tool for

  • Industrial growth

  • Social discipline

• Khrushchev attempted to modernise schooling through

  • Expansion

  • Curriculum reform

    • However, shortages, poor facilities and resistance from teachers reduced their impact

• Brezhnev restored a more traditional system, focusing on stability rather than innovation

• Historians debate whether Soviet educational growth represented genuine modernisation or simply a means of state control

Why was education important to Soviet politicians?

• Education was important to Soviet politicians as they believed it was important to socialism

  • Individuals like Lenin believed that a high level of education was needed to build socialism

  • Lenin argued that an important part of socialism was industry

    • Everyone should have basic literacy skills to understand the processes of industry

• Other communists argued that only certain individuals should be educated to help the revolution

  • Individuals such as Antony Lunacharsky, the People's Commissar of Enlightenment

• However, as education had previously been associated with the higher classes in Russia, many questioned what education should look like in the Soviet Union

  • They argued whether education should:

    • Continue to educate the elite classes

    • Have a revolution

    • Continue with its traditional form

• The Soviet Union had many complications that affected education, including

  • Low literacy rates

    • In 1914, approximately 32% of the population could not read or write

  • Prioritisation after the Civil War

    • Many argued that the Soviet Union was not yet communist, and they needed to prioritise the need to rebuild society over communist principles

Growth in primary & secondary education in the USSR

Growth of schools under Lenin

• Government decrees were issued in October 1918, which

  • Made education compulsory

  • Established unified labour schools

    • Providing free education to children aged eight to 17 years old

    • Schools would be based on vocational training

    • Young people would go to factories for four hours a day to learn skills

  • Banned religious schools

  • Introduced co-educational schools

    • Ending gender segregation in schools

  • Abolished corporal punishment in schools

    • Along with homework and exams

  • Allowed churches to be repurposed into schools

  • Provided free breakfast

  • Provided free medical examinations

Education and the NEP

• Due to the financial instability of the first few years of the New Economic Policy (NEP), education under the government was reduced, resulting in

  • School closures

  • Educational fees for school children in Primary and Secondary education

    • The poorest children and those unable to work due to war-related injuries were exempt

  • Plans to open children's homes for those orphaned by the war were scrapped

• As the economy improved in the mid-1920s, education started to change

  • In 1927, primary schools were abolished

    • Children received a four-year primary education

    • By 1928, 60% of Soviet children were in primary schools compared to 50% prior to the revolution

  • Secondary education was funded locally

    • This made it difficult for the government to control education

  • Secondary schools used existing gymnasiums

    • 97% of students paid fees

    • Schools were attended mainly by rich children

    • Approximately 90% of middle-class children attended secondary school, and only 25% of them finished school

    • Approximately 40% of working-class students attended secondary school, but only 3% finished

Growth of Schools under Stalin

• Primary school education continued under Stalin

  • Stalin set a target for all students aged between eight and 12 to be enrolled in primary school by 1932

    • By 1932, 95% of children were enrolled in primary schools

    • This was an increase of 25% from 1928

• Attendance for secondary school students grew

  • In 1939, 1.5 million Soviet citizens completed secondary school

    • Compared to 21,000 during the latter years of the NEP

• In secondary schools, students continued to

  • Pay fees

    • The government did not want to spend unnecessary money on education, as for most, a primary school education was enough to work in factories

• In 1940, the Ministry of Labour introduced Labour Reserve Schools (LRS)

  • They recruited boys aged 14 and 17 in specialist industries

  • Boys would be enrolled in training courses

    • Lasting from six months to two years

    • Followed by a four-year work placement

  • Food and accommodation were paid for

  • During the Second World War, LRS recruited women

  • If recruits were severely punished if they deserted their training

    • One year in prison or ten years in a GULAG

  • During the Fourth and Fifth-Year Plans, LRS were essential

    • They provided skilled labour needed to build the economy

Growth of Schools under Khrushchev

• Khrushchev believed that education needed reform

• Due to a lack of resources in countryside schools, Khrushchev ordered

  • The merging of smaller schools

  • New schools to be built

    • To offer a ten-year compulsory education for children

    • This only affected some areas, so it had a limited impact

• In cities and towns, Khrushchev

  • Doubled the number of schools

  • Invested in teacher training and recruitment

    • In 1953, there were 1.5 million teachers; this grew to 2.2 million in 1964

• In 1956, fees for students attending secondary school were abolished

  • From 1959, poor secondary school students could access funds to help pay for:

    • Shoes

    • Clothes

    • Textbooks

    • Food

• Students completing secondary school increased from 20% in 1953 to 75% in 1959

Growth of Schools under Brezhnev

• As Khrushchev's policies were unpopular, Brezhnev repealed many of his reforms between 1964 and 1966

  • The 11-year school policy was abolished

    • Replaced by an 8-year schooling to a 10-year schooling

  • Compulsory secondary school education ended

    • This was replaced with a target that stated all children would complete secondary school by 1970

    • This target fell short, as only 60% of students completed high school by 1976

Soviet control of the curriculum

Lenin and the curriculum

• During the Civil War, the Soviet government under Lunacharsky and Nadezha Krupskaya introduced a polytechnic style of education, in an attempt to resolve illiteracy in the Soviet Union

• Lunacharsky wanted to follow teaching methods based on American educationalists who taught through activities and play

  • Such as John Dewey

• Despite the government decrees, Soviet education failed to fully develop into Lunacharsky's vision as

  • The Civil War prevented schools from being funded

    • No free school meals

    • No medical check-ups

  • Free compulsory education was not achieved until the 1950s

  • Teachers used traditional teaching methods

    • There was no reliable teacher training

• However, as most teachers were trained before the revolution, very little change happened in how students were taught

  • Approaches to history and other subjects remained the same

    • The government asked teachers to teach about the history of class struggle

    • Many taught about the Tsars

Stalin and the curriculum

• The curriculum under Stalin saw a drastic change as Stalin's Soviet Union needed disciplined and literate workers

• The polytechnic focus was removed

  • Replaced with a focus on core subjects

    • Such as reading, writing, science and maths

• In 1932, a decree was introduced with a focus on discipline in schools to help prepare them for work. It stated that all students must:

  • Attend school regularly

  • Be punctual

  • Follow a code of conduct

    • Which instructed students on how to stand and sit

• In 1933, textbooks were created based on the new curriculum

• In 1935, national examinations were introduced

• The Decree on the Teaching of Civic History was introduced in the 1930s

  • Focusing on nationalism and the history of Russia rather than the history of the working class

• In 1943, Stalin also introduced gender segregation in schools

  • To ensure:

    • Discipline

    • Focus

Khrushchev and the curriculum

• Khrushchev believed that the curriculum needed reform

• Polytechnic education was reintroduced in 1956 as

  • Workers were needed with specialised industrial skills

  • The Second World War left a shortage of skilled labour

• These reforms changed the

  • Time given to different subjects

  • Focus on subjects

    • Which became more practical

  • School trips to different working environments

    • Including factories and farms

• In 1958, Khrushchev introduced more reforms to address Khrushchev's belief that traditional education creates prejudice towards working in factories and farms

• The reforms were enacted in the 1959 Education Law and stated that

  • Education was compulsory for children aged seven to 15

  • Schools must offer an 11-year programme of study

    • Children were able to stay in education until they were 19 years old

  • Students aged 16 to 19 would be educated in schools and vocational training

    • In farms and factories

  • Academically gifted students would attend special schools

    • With a more academic education

  • A new subject, "The fundamentals of political knowledge", was introduced

    • This course was for all 15-year-olds

    • They learnt the Soviet system and Marxism

• Khrushchev continued to reform education as a part of the policy of de-Stalinisation

  • The code of conduct was replaced with a new code of conduct

    • Removing the rules about the correct ways to sit and stand

  • In 1961, there was an emphasis on learning foreign languages

    • This went against Stalin's beliefs on cultural isolation

  • Homework was removed

  • Final exams were replaced by continuous assessment

  • In June 1962, teachers were no longer allowed to expel students who were underachieving

• Khrushchev's reforms were unpopular and seen as a failure

  • Most parents wanted their children to receive an education

    • Instead, many were trained in vocational courses

  • Reforms were never fully implemented

  • The reduction in discipline was ignored by most teachers

    • Most continued to set homework and enforce correct seating and standing postures

  • Curriculum reforms were not adopted by 47% of schools

  • Reforms did not resolve most of the problems in Soviet education

    • Schools were poorly built and maintained

    • Shortage of teachers in the countryside

Brezhnev and the curriculum

• As Khrushchev's policies were unpopular, Brezhnev repealed many of his curriculum changes between 1964 and 1966

  • A temporary curriculum was created

    • With a focus on academic education

  • Vocational training for students aged 16 to 19 ended

• Brezhnev introduced other reforms in the 1970s

  • The School Statute of September 1970 stated that textbooks had to be upgraded

    • To reflect the growth of scientific understanding

  • Homework was compulsory

  • Free school meals were provided to students

    • To help increase the number of peasants attending schools

• Overall, very few changes were made to the curriculum

  • Students were still expected to study the same subjects as outlined in 1947

Growth in higher education in the USSR

• Higher education was a success of the Soviet Union

  • In 1914, 127,000 students attended university

    • By 1939, this had increased to 811,000

  • This number continued to grow between 1953 and 1980, as student attendance grew from 1.5 million to over 5 million

• In 1958, universities offered courses that reflected the needs of the Soviet Union, including:

  • Radio

  • Electronics

  • Agriculture

  • Construction

  • Machine engineering

• Both Khrushchev and Brezhnev attempted to fund universities for non-Russian ethnic background students

  • Brezhnev founded 18 universities for non-Russian Soviet republic students

    • From countries such as Kazakhstan and Azerbaijan

• During Stalin's regime, trade unions offered scholarships to help students access higher education

  • This system favoured the children of Party officials

    • Stalin used it as a way to reward loyal members of the Party

• Postgraduate education also expanded

  • In 1953, only 9,000 people had doctorates; this increased to 32,000 in 1975

• Most postgraduate courses were in the sciences

  • As politicians were worried about the potential increase in political non-conformity

    • As it was less politically dangerous

  • Those studying the humanities would have to write a chapter on how their work supported Marxist ideology

    • To show their continued support

The war against illiteracy

Lenin and illiteracy

• Lenin aimed to end illiteracy

  • He believed it was crucial to building socialism

• In 1919, the Soviet government published the Decree on Illiteracy

  • All people aged between five and 50 had to learn how to read and write

  • Allowed the government to conscript people to teach people how to read and write

• During the Civil War, efforts were made to reduce illiteracy; however, they were not very successful

  • Reading rooms were created in towns and villages

    • Offering six-week courses on reading and writing

    • Not many attended these courses, as many struggled to survive

  • Textbooks were created with simple rhymes to teach the alphabet

    • Although 6.5 million copies were created, they did not end illiteracy

• These initiatives failed to end illiteracy as

  • Teachers continued with traditional Western-style teaching

  • Many teachers opposed the new government

  • Military victory and survival were prioritised over education

    • The production of school supplies stopped

  • The Civil War disrupted teaching

    • Schools were turned into barracks

• Trotsky shared this belief with Lenin

  • As the leader of the Red Army, he educated soldiers

    • By 1921, literacy rates among soldiers increased to 80% from 50% in 1918

    • By 1925, all soldiers in the Red Army could read and write

The NEP and illiteracy

• Initially, policies to end illiteracy were reduced further under the NEP

  • As 90% of the reading rooms were closed

• By 1925, a new campaign was created to "liquidate illiteracy"

  • The aim was for all adults in the Soviet Union to be literate by October 1927

  • To achieve this, the government and local trade unions created

    • Libraries

    • Reading groups in factories

  • Due to some setbacks, the achievement date was pushed back to 1933

    • In 1928, literacy rates had improved to 55%

Stalin and illiteracy

• In 1933, Stalin created targets for illiteracy, which were to be achieved by

  • Having compulsory primary education

  • Recruiting 3 million volunteers to educate workers and peasants

    • As this started during Stalin's campaign for collective agriculture, teachers were attacked

    • Approximately 40% of teachers were physically attacked in the first year

• Teachers were poorly equipped, and many had

  • No textbooks

  • Limited writing equipment

• During the Five-Year Plan, 90% of adults attended a literacy course

  • Resulting in only 68% adults being literate by the end of the Five-Year Plan

• By 1939, over 94% of adults were literate in the Soviet Union

How much did education change by 1985?

• Historians debate whether the expansion of Soviet education represented genuine modernisation, or whether the system remained limited by political control and ideological priorities.

Education modernised the USSR

• Literacy expanded dramatically

  • Illiteracy campaigns increased adult literacy to over 90% by 1939

• Access to schooling widened

  • Universal primary education achieved

  • Secondary and higher education expanded steadily under Khrushchev and Brezhnev

• Education opened opportunities for workers and peasants

  • Significant social mobility into white-collar and technical roles

• Non-Russian republics experienced impressive growth in schooling

  • By the 1980s, educational gaps between republics had narrowed

• Universities grew rapidly

  • Millions entered higher education by the 1970s–80s

  • Strong development in science and technical fields

Key historian

“The expansion of education was extremely impressive, especially in the non-Russian areas. Over the years to 1970 the number of persons with incomplete secondary education… in the various republics evened out. The most dramatic increases were in the Central Asian republics and the fastest growth was recorded in Georgia. This was because the Georgians, together with the Jews, were and are the most educated nation in the USSR. Educational progress was much more marked in urban areas… The number of non-Russian students in the tertiary sector grew very impressively… This had grown to 506,000 in 1959–60 and to 2.22 million in 1980–81… The result was that by the 1980s the distinctions between the developed and underdeveloped nations… had almost disappeared. The Central Asians had caught up and in some cases had more students per 10,000 of the population than the Russians.” - Martin McCauley, The Soviet Union 1917–1991, (1993)

Education remained uneven and shaped by political control

• The curriculum was designed to promote communist ideology

• Schools focused on loyalty, patriotism and shaping the “New Soviet Man”

• Political indoctrination occurred throughout primary and secondary education

• Science and technology education in non-Russian regions lagged behind

  • Russian-language teaching created inequalities

• Rural schools remained underfunded and of poorer quality

• Higher education became more competitive during the economic slowdown of the 1970s–80s

• The education system prioritised ideological goals over independent thinking or critical skills

• Despite expansion, political control limited the genuine transformation of schooling

Key historian

“The content of education, too, is affected by political considerations. This is most apparent in the use of the system as a vehicle for ideological teaching. The Soviet authorities make no secret of this; as they see it, the schools, like any other facet of society, must make their contribution to the building of communism by educating the ‘New Man’, by equipping children with the skills, knowledge and attitudes that will make them both able and willing to play their part… Political attitudes… are put across to younger children indirectly; moral education is socially based, the youth movements make extensive use of communist symbolism; history and geography textbooks are written so as to inculcate loyalty to the country and its social system… What has not changed is the basic assumption that a central task of the schools is to rear a new generation of committed communists.” - Nigel Grant, Fifty Years of Soviet Education (1967)