The Functions of Congress (Edexcel A Level Politics): Revision Note

The functions of Congress

• Congress has three key functions – legislation, representation and oversight

  • These are the same three functions as UK Parliament, although oversight is often called scrutiny in the UK

Representation

• Members of Congress represent multiple interests simultaneously, which can create tension between competing demands

Caucuses

• Caucuses are informal groups within Congress based on ideology, identity or policy interests

  • The Congressional Black Caucus has taken part in the ‘no bill, no break’ protest on the floor of the House of Representatives to try and achieve changes to gun control

  • However, caucuses in Congress lack formal legislative power, and members must balance other interests that they might represent

State or district representation

• Members represent geographic interests that may include economic interests of their state or cultural issues relevant to their state or district

  • Senators often vote to protect state industries, such as agriculture in Iowa, or Lauren Boebert’s (R-CO) support of the water project that President Trump vetoed in 2025

  • However, national party loyalty can override local needs, such as some Republicans supporting national abortion bans despite local opposition

Party representation

• Members often vote along party lines to support their party leadership and potentially gain promotion

  • Party unity helped pass Biden’s American Rescue Plan (2021) and prevented veto overrides of President Trump’s vetoes in 2025 despite being initially unanimously passed

  • However, hyperpartisanship in Congress prevents compromise and can often make it difficult for Congress to function effectively

Lobbyists and interest groups

• Lobbyists and interest groups influence policy through donations to electoral campaigns and by providing expertise

  • The National Rifle Association spent $6.3m supporting Republicans in 2024 and $3.8m opposing Democratic candidates in 2024

  • However, this raises concerns about the role of money in congressional elections and challenges members’ ability to represent their district or state

Why is incumbency so high in Congress?

• Incumbency rates regularly exceed 90% in both the House and the Senate, reflecting the structural advantages held by sitting members

  • Name recognition gives incumbents visibility

  • Long-serving members dominate local media

  • Fundraising advantages deter challengers

    • In 2017, the average House incumbent raised $655,000 compared to $111,000 raised by challengers

  • Constituency service builds voter loyalty

  • Members secure federal grants for districts, such as Lauren Boebert’s advocacy of the Colorado water project vetoed by President Trump in 2025

  • Gerrymandering protects incumbents

    • Post-2020 redistricting in Texas attempted to favour Republican incumbents before being struck down by US courts

  • Weak challengers are discouraged from running

    • In 2024, 37 districts were uncontested, and in 2022, 35 districts were uncontested

Legislation

• A key function of Congress is to suggest, amend and delay legislation

• For a bill to become law, it must pass through a deliberately complex process designed to prevent rushed lawmaking

Legislative process

Introduction

• A bill is introduced in either the House or the Senate

Committee stage

• The bill is referred to a committee, where hearings and amendments occur

  • Unlike the UK, committees are standing committees rather than temporary bill committees

Floor debate and voting

• In the Senate, senators may use the filibuster to try and stall legislation

Bicameral agreement

• Both chambers must pass a version of the bill

• A conference committee may resolve differences between versions

Presidential consideration

• The President may sign the bill, veto it, or leave it unsigned for ten days (after which it automatically becomes law unless the congressional session ends)

  • If vetoed, Congress can override the veto with a two-thirds majority in both Houses

Strengths and weaknesses of the legislative process

Oversight

• Congress holds extensive constitutional and informal powers to scrutinise the executive branch.

Direct oversight mechanisms

Committee hearings

• Dr Anthony Fauci testified during COVID-19

• Homeland Security Secretary Kristi Noem left a hearing in 2025 rather than answer questions

Investigative committees

• The January 6th Select Committee (2021–23) held ten public hearings

Budgetary control

• Congress blocked funding for Trump’s border wall and overturned his veto of the National Defense Authorization Act 2021

Confirmation hearings

• Pete Hegseth was confirmed as Secretary of Defense after a 50–50 Senate vote and VP tie-break

Impeachment

• Trump was impeached in 2019 and 2021, though the Senate did not reach the two-thirds threshold

Oversight of the Supreme Court

• Confirmation of justices

  • Ketanji Brown Jackson was confirmed 53–47 in 2022

• Budgetary oversight

• Legislative override of court rulings

  • Attempts to codify abortion rights after Dobbs (2022)

• Constitutional amendments

  • The 16th Amendment overturned Pollock v. Farmers’ Loan & Trust

• Impeachment of justices

  • Calls to impeach Clarence Thomas in 2023 over ethics concerns

Arguments on the effectiveness of Congress at oversight