Debates About the US Presidency (Edexcel A Level Politics): Revision Note

The president is a global leader

• They are the figurehead of the US abroad, representing the US in organisations such as NATO and the G7, and acting swiftly in foreign crises, which can avoid congressional scrutiny

• E.g. President Biden sanctioned Russia (2022) following the invasion of Ukraine

Crisis response

• The president takes decisions in response to crisis situations that arise, which avoids Congress which may act too slowly

• E.g. President Trump declared a national emergency in 2019 regarding the southern border of the US, which allowed funds to be used to build a border wall, that had been denied by Congress

Executive orders

• Presidents can use their informal powers such as executive orders to direct policy without Congressional approval

• E.g. President Trump used executive orders to remove the US from the World Health Organisation and the Paris Climate Agreement

Power of the pardon

• The president is given the power of the pardon in the Constitution, but it lacks any direct checks and balances

• E.g. President Biden used the presidential pardon to pardon his son Hunter Biden

Power of the veto

• The Constitution gives the president the power of the veto and Congress the power of the veto override

• However, the two-thirds requirement for an override means the veto is rarely challenged effectively

• E.g. President Trump used the veto 10 times in his first term, and was only overturned once which occurred after he had lost the 2020 election

Congress can hold up funding

• Congress can delay funding for presidential projects, limiting the president’s ability to act

• E.g. Congress was shut down for a historic 43 days in 2025 over disagreements over a spending plan for the government

The Supreme Court can strike down executive orders

• The Supreme Court can decide whether executive orders are unconstitutional

• E.g. The Supreme Court struck down both President Obama’s expansion to the Deferred Action for Children of Americans (DACA) executive order, and President Trump’s overturning DACA

Divided government

• Divided government and hyperpartisanship in the US have made it more difficult for the president to control Congress to achieve his goals

• E.g. The Senate held up President Obama’s nomination of Merrick Garland (2016) to the Supreme Court for 293 days, allowing President Trump to fill the vacancy instead

Executive orders are only temporary

• As executive orders are interpretations issued by a president, they can be rescinded by following presidents and so may be short-lived

• E.g. President Obama took the US into the Paris Climate Agreement, President Trump took the US out, President Biden took the US back in again, and President Trump took the US out again

The election cycle limits presidential power

• The president must consider both the election cycle for the presidency and Congress as their actions affect their popularity and the likelihood of being re-elected or having control of Congress

• E.g. Congressional Republicans distanced themselves from President Trump in 2026, as controversial issues such as his demand to own Greenland and his actions in Venezuela led to a 56% disapproval rate in January 2026

Veto override

• Congress has the power to limit presidential action over legislation

• The threat of the veto override can also be effective at preventing presidential action

• E.g. Congress overrode President Trump’s veto of the National Defense Authorisation Act (2021) which he vetoed due to lack of funding for his southern border wall

Partisan alignment reduces oversight

• Congress often avoids carrying out checks effectively on the president when he is of their party, or carrying them out on a president because he is not

• The Republican-controlled Senate found President Trump not guilty during his impeachment conviction (2021) over the Jan 6 insurrection at Congress

Impeachment power

• Congress can remove a president from office

• President Trump was tried on two impeachment counts in 2019 and one count in 2021

• Whilst he was found not guilty in these cases, these were very public trials and demonstrated a willingness of Congress to use the constitutional powers it has

Congressional delay reduces impact

• Congress can be slow at producing legislation or carrying out investigations, and the president instead may turn to informal powers

• Congressional inaction over a spending bill in 2025)led to a 43-day government shutdown when no formal congressional oversight of the president took place

Ratification powers

• The Senate confirms key presidential nominees to the Supreme Court and the Presidential cabinet

• The Senate confirmed Ketanji Brown Jackson to the US Supreme Court in 2022, and three nominees of President Trump in his first term

Limited enforcement powers

• Congress cannot directly remove executive orders, and can only directly overturn them through the production of new legislation, which is a lengthy process

• President Trump passed 225 executive orders in 2025, which allows him considerable power and limited congressional oversight

Investigative oversight

• Congressional committees can hold public investigative hearings

• The House Oversight Committee released parts of the Epstein files, whilst executive departments stalled on their release

Oversight is dependent on party political balance in Congress

• Divided government is needed for strong oversight, 

• Both Presidents Biden and Trump faced limited oversight early in their presidential terms due to party unity, and partisan voting in Congress

Congress often has a newer mandate than the president

• Due to the mid-terms, Congress can often claim a more recent mandate than the US president

• The Senate held up the appointment of Merrick Garland in 2016 claiming the Republican-controlled chamber had a newer mandate (2014) than President Obama (2012)

Public influence may override Congress

• A president can appeal to voters directly to put pressure on legislators

• President Obama told voters to “nag them!” meaning voters should contact Congress to pressure their representatives to pass his economic policies

The president negotiates international agreements, and represents the US in international bodies such as NATO and the G7

• President Trump negotiated the  US-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA, 2020)

• However, President Obama’s Trans-Pacific Partnership failed in Congress (2016) and was eventually withdrawn by President Trump in 2017

These agreements can fast-track international deals and  bypass the Senate

• President Biden used executive agreements to place sanctions on Russia (2022) as part of the G7 following the invasion of Ukraine

• However, Congress can use their legislative power to advance their own agenda, such as passing $400m in military aid for Ukraine

President Trump launched strikes against Iranian general Soleimani (2020) resulting in his death, and took action in Venezuela (2026) without informing Congress

• The president can be limited by War Powers Resolution, which Congress attempted after President Trump's actions in Venezuela (failing only due to a tie-breaking vote in the Senate by Vice President Vance)

• Congress can also legislate on the military, the 2026 National Defense Authorization Act blocks the President from reducing the number of US troops in Europe and South Korea

Presidents can try and control aid budgets to try and shape diplomacy

• President Trump intervened to block the $400m in military aid to Ukraine approved by Congress (although ultimately this was overturned)

• Congress can pass foreign aid despite presidential pressure, such as Congress passing $5bn in foreign aid in 2025 that President Trump then attempted to cut

The president can appoint ambassadors, envoys and cabinet secretaries to try and influence policy

• President’s Trump appointment of Pete Hegseth as Secretary of Defense signalled a militaristic approach to foreign policy

• Congress can hold up or prevent appointments, for example Senator Tommy Tuberville held up hundreds of senior military appointments (2023)