Informal Sources of Presidential Power (Edexcel A Level Politics): Revision Note

An introduction to informal sources of power

• Alongside formal constitutional powers, presidents also rely on informal sources of power to influence policy and decision-making

• These powers are not explicitly set out in the Constitution, but have developed through convention, circumstance and political practice

• This section examines how presidents use:

  • the executive branch and its components

  • the electoral mandate

  • executive orders

  • national events and crises

  • the cabinet

  • powers of persuasion

  • Executive Office of the President (EXOP)

• Together, these informal powers help explain why presidential power can expand or contract in practice, depending on political context

The executive branch

• The US executive branch implements and enforces federal law

  • The President heads the executive branch

  • A team of advisers and permanent bureaucrats implement policy

  • Constitutional powers grant authority to the President, Cabinet, the Executive Office of the President (EXOP) and bureaucracy

President

• The head of the executive branch

• Enforces laws, directs foreign policy, and commands the military

  • President Trump directed the US intervention in Venezuela in 2026

Vice President (VP)

• Second-in-command of the executive branch

• Presides over the Senate

• Assumes the presidency if the president is incapacitated

  • VP JD Vance cast the tie-breaking Senate vote over the war powers resolution in January 2026, preventing the restriction of President Trump's power

Cabinet

• The president’s key advisors, including heads of federal departments

• Provide policy advice and administer executive agencies

  • President Trump’s Secretary of Health Robert Kennedy took an anti-vaccine stance, firing all the independent experts on the CDC’s Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices

Executive Office of the President (EXOP)

• Includes offices including the National Security Council (NSC), Office of Management and Budget (OMB) and White House Office (WHO)

• Advises the president and coordinates policy implementation

  • The OMB managed federal pandemic relief spending during the American Rescue Plan 2021

Federal Bureaucracy

• Permanent administrative departments and agencies

• Implement laws and regulations, ensuring continuity regardless of the president

  • The Department of Homeland Security oversaw security for US elections in 2020

Implied powers of the President

• Implied powers of the President come from the necessary and proper clause of the US Constitution

  • They allow the President to go beyond formally listed powers

  • Implied powers allow presidents to act decisively when formal powers are insufficient

  • However, they can result in legal and political scrutiny

    • E.g. court challenges to Trump’s emergency funding of the US-Mexico border wall

The electoral mandate

• The electoral mandate is the power that a president gains after an election

• Results provide a clear endorsement from the electorate of their policies and provides:

1. Legitimacy

   • A strong electoral mandate can pressure members of Congress to support the president’s agenda

     • E.g. Biden’s 2020 victory, with 306 electoral votes and over 81 million popular votes, strengthened his position to pass the American Rescue Plan (2021)

2. Public persuasion

   • Presidents with a clear electoral mandate can use public opinion to influence legislation and policy debates

     • E.g. Trump’s 2016 mandate, despite losing the popular vote, allowed him to push the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (2017) through Congress

3. International authority

   • A perceived strong electoral mandate can enhance the president’s credibility in foreign negotiations

     • E.g. Obama’s 2012 re-election allowed him to negotiate international climate commitments, strengthening US influence at COP21 (2015)

• The electoral mandate is symbolic rather than legally binding

  • Midterm elections can undermine the President’s electoral mandate, as the president’s party frequently loses congressional seats

• The electoral mandate can expand presidential authority

  • Its effect is limited by partisanship, congressional control, and public opinion

Executive orders

• Executive orders are directives issued by the president to federal departments and agencies to instruct them on the operation and implementation of laws

  • They carry the force of law but do not require congressional approval

    • E.g. In 2021, President Biden issued an order mandating COVID-19 vaccinations for federal employees

Why are executive orders important?

• Immediate effect

  • Orders allow swift action without waiting for Congressional action

    • E.g. President Biden quickly reinstated the US in the Paris Climate Agreement (2021) and President Trump once again removed the US from the Agreement (2025)

• Policy direction

  • They can shape federal departments and agency priorities

    • E.g. President Trump led to a range of environmental rollbacks through executive orders to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (2017–20)

• Bypass governmental gridlock

  • They can be particularly useful during times of divided government resulting in little governance taking place

    • E.g. Biden’s executive actions on student loan forgiveness (2022)

Why might executive orders may be limited?

National events

• National events, such as crises or emergencies, can significantly affect presidential power, both formally and informally

Wars and conflicts

• Crises often enhance the president’s role as commander-in-chief, enabling them to make rapid military decisions

  • E.g. President Biden’s decision to withdraw US troops from Afghanistan (2021) demonstrated crisis decision-making authority

Health emergencies

• Presidents can expand executive discretion and command public resources

  • E.g. President Trump declared a national emergency during COVID-19 (2020), unlocking funds and emergency powers

Economic crises

• Events such as recessions allow presidents to push large-scale legislation

  • E.g. President Biden’s American Rescue Plan (2021) was justified by the pandemic’s economic impact

The Cabinet

• The Cabinet is the president’s key advisory body, composed of the heads of federal departments

Membership of cabinet

• Vice President

• Fifteen Cabinet Secretaries that are the heads of each of the 15 executive departments

  • E.g. Pete Hegseth is the Secretary of Defense as the Head of the Department of Defense under President Trump (2025-)

• Other members of Cabinet rank as chosen by the President

  • E.g. the White House Chief of Staff, the Environmental Protection Agency Administrator, the CIA Director

Appointment to the Cabinet

• Most Cabinet members are subject to Senate approval after being nominated by the president

  • Secretary of Defense Pete Hegseth was nominated by President Trump, but the Senate vote was split 50-50 on his approval, requiring the tie-breaking vote of the Vice President

The importance of the Cabinet

Policy advice

• The Cabinet can shape presidential decisions and policies

  • E.g. Secretary Hegseth argued for the removal of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and other senior military officials, including defending the removal of Air Force General CQ Brown Jr.

Administrative control

• The Cabinet can direct departmental policy

  • E.g. Secretary of Defense Hegseth reinstated a ban on transgender individuals serving in the US military

Political legitimacy

• Cabinet choices may reflect party and regional balance

  • E.g. Secretary of State Rubio (2025) was the first Latino person to hold this role in US history

Limitations of the Cabinet as a source of presidential power

• The advice of the Cabinet is not binding, so Presidents can ignore it

  • E.g. Kirstjen Nielsen resigned as the Secretary of Homeland Security in 2019 after President Trump announced he wanted a tougher stance on immigration

• Internal conflict

  • Cabinet members can disagree, reducing their effectiveness as an advisory body

  • E.g. In 2025, Secretaries Hegseth and Rubio gave conflicting views on the necessary settlement for ending the Russian invasion of Ukraine

• Senate confirmation is required, limiting the president’s freedom to appoint

  • E.g. Criticism of President Trump’s nomination of Matt Gaetz as US Attorney General led to his withdrawal from the nomination process

Presidential powers of persuasion

• Presidential persuasion is the ability of the president to influence Congress, public opinion and foreign leaders without formal powers

  • They enable them to achieve policy goals without relying solely on constitutional authority

Executive Office of the President (EXOP)

• EXOP supports the president with policy development, administration and coordination

  • It extends presidential influence by centralising information, policy advice and administrative control

• EXOP staff report directly to the president

  • Its power lies in proximity to the president and control over information flow.

Key components of EXOP