Social Action Theory (Interpretivism) (AQA A Level Sociology): Revision Note

Social action theory (interpretivism)

• Social action theory, also known as interpretivism, focuses on the individual and the meanings they attach to everyday actions and interactions

• It rejects the determinism of structural theories like functionalism and Marxism, which claim that people are shaped by social institutions

  • Instead, it argues that individuals have free will

• Social action theory takes a micro-level approach, concentrating on small-scale interactions rather than large institutions like education or the economy

• It believes that society is socially constructed by individuals through their everyday behaviour and interactions

  • People are not puppets of society, but rather architects of their own lives

Key concepts in social action theory

Interactionism

• Interactionist sociologists study how individuals interact in daily life

• They examine the meanings people attach to symbols, actions, and situations

  • E.g., studying how teachers label students and how those labels can influence student achievement and self-image

• Interactionists often use qualitative methods like interviews, observations, and case studies to get in-depth insights into social meanings

Labelling theory

• Labelling theory, developed by sociologists such as Becker, explores how people are defined or judged by others, especially those in positions of authority

  • E.g., teachers, police, social workers

• These labels can affect a person's identity, behaviour, and how others treat them

  • E.g., a student labelled as "disruptive" may begin to see themselves that way and act accordingly—a self-fulfilling prophecy

• Labelling can lead to inequality, as certain groups may be unfairly stigmatised or marginalised

Phenomenology

• Phenomenology argues that we must understand the subjective meanings people attach to the world around them

• It focuses on how people categorise and interpret social phenomena

  • E.g., why do the media label some protest groups as “dangerous extremists” while others are described as “peaceful activists", even when their actions are similar?

Evaluation of social action theory

Strengths

• High validity

  • One strength of social action theory is that it produces rich, in-depth, valid data

    • It captures the real experiences and meanings of those being studied, often using participants’ own words

    • This makes it especially useful for understanding complex social interactions

• Focus on agency and free will

  • Unlike structural theories, it highlights that individuals are active agents who can interpret, negotiate, and resist social structures, offering a more dynamic view of human behaviour

Criticisms

• Ignores wider social structures

  • Social action theory focuses so closely on individuals that it often neglects the larger social forces influencing behaviour

    • E.g., family interactions may be shaped by economic conditions, such as the cost-of-living crisis, but this is often overlooked

• Overlooks power and inequality

  • Although labelling theory identifies inequality, it doesn’t fully explain where power comes from or why certain groups can impose labels

    • E.g., why do the media, teachers, or police have the power to define others?

• Unscientific and hard to generalise

  • Structural sociologists argue that interpretivist methods (e.g., interviews, observations) are not reliable or generalisable

    • They rely on small samples and can’t be easily replicated

    • The findings are often based on the researcher’s subjective interpretation, which may introduce bias