Childbearing (AQA A Level Sociology): Revision Note

Patterns of childbearing have changed:

• Rise in births outside marriage

  • 51.4% of children were born outside of marriage in 2022, compared to only 20% in 1986

  • 36.5% of all births were registered to cohabiting parents in 2021 (ONS, 2023)

• Later motherhood

  • Women are having their first child later than previous generations

  • Between 1971 and 2012, the average age of first-time mothers increased by 4 years, from 24.7 to 28.1 years

  • In 2021, the average age for giving birth rose to 30.9 years

• Fewer children per woman

  • Fertility rates have declined since the 20th century

  • The average number of children per woman fell from 2.95 in 1964 to 1.63 in 2001, before slightly rising to 1.94 in 2010

  • In 2023, the fertility rate dropped again to 1.44 children per woman

• Childlessness

  • Increasing numbers of women remain childless

  • 1941 cohort: 17.9% of women were childless at age 30

  • 1990 cohort: 50.1% of women were childless at age 30

  • This reflects a growing trend of voluntary childlessness among more recent generations

Decline in stigma and rise in cohabitation

• Having children outside marriage is no longer heavily stigmatised

• In 1989, 70% of people believed couples should marry before having children, but this dropped to 42% by 2012

• Cohabitation is increasingly viewed as a valid and socially accepted alternative to marriage

Women prioritising careers and education

• Many women delay childbearing to focus on higher education and building careers

• This shift highlights changes in gender roles and greater female financial independence

Smaller family sizes

• Couples are opting for fewer children due to the high cost of raising a family and lifestyle choices

• According to The Times (2024) (opens in a new tab), the average cost of raising a child to age 18 in the UK is £223,256, including housing and childcare

Secularisation

• Decline in religious influence has weakened the view that marriage and childbearing must be linked

• Premarital sex is no longer considered ‘sinful’, reflecting broader cultural shifts

Functionalist perspective

• Functionalists argue that while the structure of families is changing, the function of raising and socialising children remains central

• They see delayed childbearing and smaller family sizes as rational adaptations to modern economic demands

Feminist perspective

• Feminists view delayed childbearing as empowering for women, allowing them to achieve independence and career success

• They see reduced pressure to marry and have children as a positive shift away from patriarchal expectations

Postmodern and personal life perspectives

• These perspectives highlight individual choice and diversity, arguing that childbearing decisions are shaped by personal goals, lifestyle preferences, and changing social norms rather than fixed traditions

A lone-parent family is where one parent lives with their child or children without a partner present

Most are matriarchal, meaning they are headed by the mother, a trend seen in black families (opens in a new tab)

Trends in lone-parent families are shifting

• 16% of all families in 2023 were lone-parent families

• In 2023, 85% of lone-parent families were headed by a mother

• Children living with a lone parent are twice as likely to be in poverty compared to those living with two parents

Increase in divorce and separation

• Divorce and separation are the leading causes of lone-parent families

• More recently, the number of never-married women having children has also increased

Decline in stigma

• The stigma once attached to having children outside marriage has significantly declined

• In the past, lone-parent families often arose due to the death of a parent, but this is now far less common

Female-headed households

• Women are often seen as more suited to the expressive or nurturing role, making them more likely to receive custody in divorce cases

• Men are generally less willing to give up work to raise children

• Social expectations and the belief in maternal responsibility reinforce this trend

Single by choice

• Some women choose to have and raise children without a partner

• Cashmore (1985) found that some working-class mothers, particularly those with limited earning power, opted to live on benefits rather than with a partner who might offer little support

• Women may also choose lone parenthood to limit the father’s involvement due to personal preference or concerns over the relationship

New Right perspective

• Murray (1984) argues that the rise in lone-parent families is due to an over-generous welfare state, which he claims rewards 'irresponsible' behaviour, such as having children outside marriage

• Welfare creates a 'perverse incentive' by encouraging single parenthood and a dependency culture, where individuals rely on benefits instead of supporting themselves

• The New Right believes reducing welfare benefits would restore the traditional nuclear family and reduce lone parenthood

Feminist critique of the New Right

• Feminists argue the New Right blames women rather than recognising the failure of many men to provide financial or emotional support

• Welfare benefits are not overly generous—most single mothers are in low-paid jobs or seeking work

• Lone-parent poverty is the result of patriarchal structures and gender inequalities in the labour market, such as the gender pay gap and lack of affordable childcare

• Feminists view lone-parent families as evidence of women’s independence, as they are no longer forced to remain in unhappy or abusive relationships

Marxist Feminist view

• Marxist feminists link lone-parent poverty to capitalism, which exploits women both in the workforce and at home

• The state often uses welfare to maintain low-wage labour markets, rather than to support women’s independence

Personal Life perspective

• From this view, lone-parent families should not be seen as “broken” families

• What matters most is the quality of relationships and emotional bonds, not whether there is one or two parents

Stepfamilies (reconstituted or blended families) are formed when one or both partners bring children from previous relationships into a new family unit

Most arise as a result of re-partnering after divorce or separation

Trends in stepfamilies have changed

• In 2021, 8.8% of dependent children lived in stepfamilies, compared to 9.7% in 2011

• 85% of stepfamilies include at least one child from the mother’s previous relationship

• 11% have a child from the father’s previous relationship

• 4% include children from both partners’ previous relationships

• Stepfamilies often face specific challenges, such as:

  • A higher risk of poverty due to financial responsibilities for children from multiple households

  • Divided loyalties, which can cause emotional tension and adjustment issues

Link to divorce and lone-parent families

• Stepfamilies typically form when lone parents enter new relationships

• Therefore, factors leading to a rise in divorce, separation, and lone parenthood—such as reduced stigma and increased cohabitation—also contribute to the growth of stepfamilies

Children likely to remain with mother

• Following separation or divorce, children are far more likely to live with their mothers

• This explains why the majority of stepfamilies involve children from the mother’s previous relationship

Risk of poverty

• Financial strain is common, as stepfathers or stepmothers may need to support both their biological children and stepchildren

• The costs of maintaining multiple households further increase economic pressure

Tensions within stepfamilies

• A lack of clear social norms about roles and responsibilities in stepfamilies can create conflict

• Issues of loyalty may arise, particularly when children maintain strong attachments to their non-resident biological parent

Functionalist perspective

• Functionalists argue that stepfamilies, like nuclear families, fulfil essential roles such as socialisation and emotional support

• However, they may face greater challenges adapting to complex family dynamics

New Right perspective

• New Right theorists are often critical of stepfamilies, linking them to family breakdown

• They claim they are less stable than nuclear families due to divided roles and responsibilities

Feminist perspective

• Feminists highlight that stepfamilies can place an additional domestic and emotional burden on women, as they are often expected to care for both biological and stepchildren

• They also argue that stepfamilies challenge traditional patriarchal family structures by creating more diverse and negotiated roles

Personal life perspective

• From this perspective, what matters most is the quality of relationships rather than biological ties

• Stepfamilies can provide strong bonds and support networks when relationships are based on emotional connection and cooperation