Observations & Education (AQA A Level Sociology): Revision Note
Exam code: 7192
Observations in education
Researchers most often use non-participant observations (opens in a new tab) to study teachers and students in the classroom
Some sociologists have observed students in their free time, i.e., the playground and private spaces where they congregate in school
Observations are used in educational research to explore:
Gender and classroom behaviour – explores how boys and girls interact differently in lessons, including participation, attention, and discipline
Teacher expectations and labelling – how teachers may unconsciously treat pupils differently based on gender, ethnicity, or class
Peer group culture and subcultures – examines how pupils form groups that influence attitudes to learning, behaviour, and conformity or resistance
Informal racism or sexism among staff and pupils – to uncover subtle discriminatory behaviours or comments not captured in official data
The hidden curriculum – explores unspoken messages about hierarchy, conformity, and values conveyed through routines
Covert observations
Covert observations are rarely used in educational research as:
it is unethical for researchers to mislead children and teachers
it is hard to disguise age or role (researchers seldom pass as pupils)
headteachers are unlikely to authorise such research
informed consent is difficult to secure retrospectively
Structured observations
Positivist sociologists favour structured observations as:
they use predefined behaviour categories, e.g., teacher talk or pupil talk
interactions between pupils and teachers are recorded (tallied) at specific time intervals
they produce quantitative, comparable data
Research studies
Becky Francis (2000) used a structured, overt, non-participant observation schedule in 12 Year 10 English lessons across several schools to tally teacher-pupil interactions by gender
A large number of pupils and multiple schools gave a broad snapshot
However, the short observation window per class made it hard to capture every interaction as noise, and fast pacing led to missed data
The tally alone did not explain why boys got more negative attention than girls; Francis had to follow up with pupil and teacher interviews for deeper meaning
Galton et al. (1980) observed 96 primary lessons in six English schools using a pre-coded schedule to tally teacher talk, pupil talk, whole-class, group and individual work
They quantified how much lesson time was spent on whole-class, group and individual work and found pupils were actively engaged for barely half the lesson
However, the coding sheet could not capture pupils’ feelings or the quality of the interactions, limiting validity
Evaluation of structured observations in education
Practical issues
Advantages | Limitations |
---|---|
Once the observation schedule is designed, lessons can be recorded quickly and efficiently. | Designing the observation categories and coding large datasets is time-consuming and labour-intensive. |
Allows systematic comparisons across different lessons, year groups, or schools. | Researchers may be denied access to certain spaces (e.g. staffrooms, pastoral meetings) or 'sensitive' lessons. |
Staff lists provide a clear sampling frame, helping to plan which teachers or classes to observe. | Access is subject to headteacher approval—gatekeeping can restrict who or what is observed. |
Ethical issues
Advantages | Limitations |
---|---|
Overt structured observations allow for informed consent from pupils, teachers, and parents. | In some settings, full consent may be hard to guarantee, especially in large or complex schools. |
Less intrusive than interviews—no direct questioning or disruption to classroom routines. | Observing sensitive classes (e.g., SEN, behavioural units) may be ethically restricted or off-limits. |
Theoretical issues
Advantages | Limitations |
---|---|
High reliability – standardised observation schedules can be replicated by other researchers. | Low validity – ticking pre-defined categories may miss pupils' meanings, intentions, or social context. |
Enables quantitative, statistical analysis of classroom behaviour across settings. | The Hawthorne effect may distort behaviour—pupils and teachers may act differently when being observed. |
Positivists value the objectivity of this method for identifying behavioural patterns. | Observation cannot reveal external influences on pupil behaviour (e.g., home life), limiting the depth of explanation. |
Unstructured observations
These observations are favoured by interpretivist sociologists as:
They produce qualitative, in-depth data
Researchers can gain access to the meanings that teachers and pupils give to situations
Researchers can follow events freely and flexibly, as there are no predefined behaviour categories
Research studies
Colin Lacey (1970) spent two terms as an overt non-participant observer in Hightown Grammar (boys’ grammar)
He gathered data in an open, qualitative, unstructured way
His long-term presence provided detailed insight into how streaming produced pro- and anti-school subcultures
However, the single-school focus limits representativeness
Staff and pupils knew they were observed, so behaviour may have been altered, affecting validity
Nell Keddie (1971) spent a full academic year sitting at the back of a London comprehensive’s 'C-stream' humanities class, taking open field notes
She revealed how teachers’ casual comments and simplified curriculum material conveyed low expectations, reinforcing working-class disadvantage
However, the single-class and single-school findings rely on Keddie’s subjective interpretation, compromising validity
Evaluation of unstructured observations in education
Practical issues
Advantages | Limitations |
---|---|
Flexible, as the researcher can adapt the focus as new patterns or issues emerge during the observation. | Time-consuming – requires long periods of observation and detailed note-taking, making it less efficient. |
Allows in-depth exploration of classroom interactions and social dynamics. | Typically covers only a small number of pupils or classes, limiting generalisability and representativeness. |
Staff lists help identify potential participants for observation planning. | Access is restricted—some school spaces (e.g., staffrooms, pastoral meetings) may be off-limits. |
Ethical issues
Advantages | Limitations |
---|---|
Less intrusive than questioning – pupils are observed naturally in their learning environment. | Requires headteacher permission and often parental consent—gatekeeping can limit access or steer selection. |
Can observe sensitive interactions (e.g., discipline, peer conflict) in real time without direct interference. | Some situations (e.g., teacher-pupil conflict) may raise ethical concerns around privacy and safeguarding. |
Theoretical issues
Advantages | Limitations |
---|---|
High validity, as spontaneous behaviour is captured and pupils' own meanings are in context. | Researcher subjectivity, as interpretations may be biased, reducing reliability. |
Avoids imposing pre-defined categories – reduces assumption bias in data collection. | Observing behaviour does not reveal motives—without questioning, data may lack explanatory depth. |
Can generate new hypotheses for future structured studies or surveys. | The awareness of being observed may lead to unnatural behaviour from teachers or pupils. |
Interpretivists value the open, exploratory nature of this method. | Does not account for external factors like home life or socio-economic background influencing pupil behaviour. |
Examiner Tips and Tricks
When tackling a Methods in Context question, it’s important to go beyond the strengths and weaknesses of observations in general.
You may find it useful to remind yourself of the key features of observations (opens in a new tab) and the specific issues involved in researching students (opens in a new tab) and teachers (opens in a new tab)within the educational setting.
Don't forget to illustrate your points with named studies (e.g., Francie, Lacey) to show real-world application.
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