Observations (AQA A Level Sociology): Revision Note

Overt PO: the group is aware of the researcher's identity.

There are no ethical issues, as informed consent can be obtained from participants.

The researcher's presence may change the behaviour of the group that is being studied (the observer effect or Hawthorne effect).

Covert PO: the group is unaware of the researcher's identity.

It may be the only way to study topics related to illegal activity, and the observer or Hawthorne effect is avoided. Therefore, the data collected is valid.

Ethical issues arise as the people being observed have not given informed consent and their privacy is invaded. Taking notes is challenging as the researcher's identity is hidden.

High validity – see behaviour in its natural, everyday setting.

Low reliability – impossible to replicate, as each PO is unique.

Produces insight – allows researchers to understand meanings from the inside. This helps them collect in-depth data.

Ethical issues – especially in covert observation, where consent is not gained.

Flexible – researchers can adapt research questions based on context.

Risk of going native – may lose objectivity and become biased.

Rapport – allows deeper investigation of sensitive topics as they are conducted over a long period of time.

Difficult access – can be hard to gain entry to closed or deviant groups. Once entry is gained, building trust is hard.

Detailed qualitative data – provides rich and authentic evidence that is high in validity.

Time-consuming and demanding – requires high commitment and personal skills.

Avoids imposition – participants shape the direction of enquiry.

Representativeness – usually small-scale, limiting generalisability.

Only option available – certain groups may refuse to be interviewed, e.g., drug users and religious cults

Costly and time-intensive – PO often requires more time (sometimes years) and money compared to other methods.

Greater objectivity – Compared to PO, the researcher remains detached, reducing the risk of becoming too involved or biased.

Reduced validity – Not participating in the group limits the researcher’s ability to understand participants’ experiences and social meanings in depth.

Easier to maintain ethical boundaries – Especially in overt observation, researchers avoid deception and can observe openly with consent.

Limited insight into group dynamics – Observing from the outside means the researcher may miss subtle interactions or unspoken rules shaping behaviour.

Allows for systematic data collection – Observers can maintain a clear focus, take notes and record behaviour without the distractions of participation.

Observer effect – If the observation is overt, participants may change their behaviour, reducing the authenticity of the data (Hawthorne Effect).

Reliable and replicable – The detachment and standardised method make it easier for other researchers to replicate the study.

Lacks empathy and rapport – Without engaging with participants, it can be harder to interpret the meaning behind their actions accurately.