Attribution Theory (College Board AP® Psychology): Revision Note

Attribution theory

• Attribution theory is an area of social cognition concerned with how people explain the behavior and mental processes of themselves and others

• When we observe behavior we naturally seek to explain its cause

  • The explanation we arrive at is called an attribution

    • E.g. if a friend fails an exam, you might explain this by thinking they are not very intelligent or that the exam was unfairly difficult

• Attributions fall into two broad categories:

  • Dispositional attributions (person attributions or internal attributions)

  • Situational attributions (external attributions)

• Dispositional attributions explain behavior in terms of internal qualities of the person

  • The cause of the behavior is due to an individual's personality, character, ability, effort, or attitudes

    • E.g. "She got an A because she is intelligent and hardworking" or "He was rude because he is an inconsiderate person"

• Situational attributions explain behavior in terms of external circumstances

  • The cause of the behavior is due to the context, environment, luck, or social pressure the person was experiencing

    • E.g. "She got an A because the test happened to cover topics she had studied recently" or "He was rude because he was having a terrible day and was under enormous stress"

• In reality, most behavior is caused by a combination of dispositional and situational factors

  • The question is which type of attribution a person tends to make, and whether their attributions are accurate

Explanatory style

• Explanatory style refers to the habitual way in which a person explains good and bad events in their own life and in the lives of others

  • It is a relatively stable, predictable pattern of attribution

• Explanatory style can be optimistic or pessimistic:

• Optimistic explanatory style is associated with:

  • better psychological resilience, higher motivation, and improved mental and physical health outcomes

• Pessimistic explanatory style is associated with:

  • increased vulnerability to depression and learned helplessness

Attributional biases & locus of control

Attributional biases

• People are not perfectly rational when making attributions

  • Instead they are influenced by systematic biases that distort their judgments in predictable ways

• Several key attributional biases illustrate these distortions, including the:

  • fundamental attribution error

  • actor–observer bias

  • self-serving bias

Fundamental attribution error

• Fundamental attribution error (FAE) refers to the tendency to:

  • overestimate the role of dispositional factors

  • underestimate the role of situational factors when explaining other people's behavior

• In other words, we focus on the person rather than the situation

  • E.g. if a stranger cuts in front of you in a queue, you are likely to think "what a rude person" rather than "perhaps they are in an emergency"

• The FAE was originally thought to be universal

  • However, research suggests it is more common in individualistic cultures, e.g. the US than in collectivist cultures, e.g. China, where situational explanations are more readily considered

• The FAE has real-world consequences:

  • It can lead to harsh judgments of people in difficult circumstances

    • e.g. blaming homeless people for their situation rather than considering situational factors

  • It can produce unfair assessments in educational, legal, and workplace contexts

    • e.g. a jury assumes a defendant acted out of bad character, rather than considering situational factors such as coercion or extreme stress

Actor-observer bias

• The actor–observer bias refers to the tendency to explain behavior differently depending on perspective

  • When explaining our own behavior (actor), we tend to make situational attributions

    • E.g. "I was late because the traffic was terrible"

  • When explaining others' behavior (observer), we tend to make dispositional attributions

    • E.g. "She is always late — she is disorganized"

• This bias occurs partly because we have greater awareness of the situational factors affecting our own behavior than those affecting others

• Actor-observer bias is closely related to the FAE

  • the FAE focuses on how we explain others’ behavior

  • actor–observer bias highlights the contrast between explanations for ourselves versus others

Self-serving bias

• The self-serving bias is the tendency to:

  • attribute successes to internal (dispositional) factors, and

  • attribute failures to external (situational) factors

• This helps protect and enhance our self-esteem

  • E.g. "I got an A because I am smart and worked hard" (dispositional) but "I failed because the teacher set an unfair test" (situational)

• In moderation, this bias is adaptive, as it supports motivation and psychological wellbeing

  • However, it can become problematic if it prevents accurate self-reflection or leads to unfairly blaming others

• Self-serving bias is closely linked to explanatory style

  • Individuals with an optimistic explanatory style tend to show stronger self-serving patterns in their attributions

Locus of Control

• Locus of control refers to the extent to which individuals believe they have control over the events and outcomes in their lives

  • Locus of control represents a stable individual difference in attribution style

• Locus of control exists on a continuum, ranging from:

  • internal locus of control

  • external locus of control

Internal locus of control

• An internal locus of control is the belief that outcomes are largely the result of one’s own actions, effort, and decisions

  • Individuals with an internal locus see themselves as active agents in shaping their lives

    • E.g. “If I study hard, I will do well” or “My success is due to my effort”

• An internal locus of control is associated with:

  • higher motivation and persistence

  • better academic and occupational achievement

  • more positive mental health outcomes

External locus of control

• An external locus of control is the belief that outcomes are determined by external forces such as luck, fate, other people, or the system

  • Individuals with an external locus feel that outcomes are largely beyond their control

    • E.g. “No matter how much I study, it depends on luck” or “The system is unfair”

• An external locus of control is associated with:

  • lower motivation and persistence

  • greater susceptibility to learned helplessness

  • poorer mental health outcomes

• Locus of control is closely related to explanatory style

  • An internal locus of control is often linked to a more optimistic explanatory style and greater personal responsibility

  • An external locus of control is often linked to a more pessimistic explanatory style and reduced sense of agency