APA Ethical Guidelines (College Board AP® Psychology): Revision Note

The APA ethical guidelines & Institutional Review Board (IRB)

• The American Psychological Association (APA) publishes a code of ethics that all psychologists must follow when conducting research

• The APA guidelines are designed to protect the wellbeing, dignity, and rights of both human and non-human animal participants in psychological research

• Before any research can be conducted, it must be reviewed and approved by an Institutional Review Board (IRB)

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

• An IRB is an independent committee that reviews proposed research to ensure it meets ethical standards before the study begins

  • IRBs exist at universities, hospitals, and other research institutions

• The IRB reviews:

  • Whether the potential benefits of the research outweigh the risks to participants

  • Whether informed consent or informed assent procedures are in place

  • Whether participants are adequately protected from harm

  • Whether confidentiality and anonymity are maintained

  • Whether deception is justified and whether a proper debrief is planned

• Research involving non-human animals must also receive IRB approval and comply with additional APA guidelines for animal research

• No research can proceed without IRB approval — this is the primary mechanism through which ethical standards are enforced in psychological research

Informed consent, informed assent & right to withdraw

Informed consent

• Before taking part in a study, participants must be given detailed information about what they will be required to do

  • This is so that they can make a free and informed decision about whether to participate

• This information should include:

  • The nature and purpose of the task

  • The time commitment required

  • Any potential risks or discomforts involved

  • Their right to withdraw at any time without penalty

• Informed consent must be given voluntarily

  • Participants should never feel pressured or coerced into taking part

• Example of failure to obtain informed consent:

  • In Milgram's (1963) obedience study, participants were told they were taking part in a study on the effect of punishment on learning

    • The true aim was concealed, meaning fully informed consent was not obtained

Informed assent

• Informed assent applies when a participant cannot legally give consent themselves

  • This occurs most commonly with participants under the age of 18

• In these cases, a parent or legal guardian must give informed consent on the participant's behalf

• The participant themselves must also give assent — their agreement to take part, expressed in age-appropriate terms

• Both informed consent from the guardian and assent from the participant are required

Right to withdraw

• Participants must be made aware that they have the right to withdraw from the study at any time

  • This includes after the procedure has ended, without penalty or negative consequences

• Any data collected from a participant who withdraws must be destroyed, along with any personal details the researcher holds

• Example of failure to protect right to withdraw:

  • In Zimbardo's (1973) Stanford Prison Experiment, participants who wished to leave were pressured to stay. Zimbardo, acting as prison superintendent, used his authority to discourage withdrawal, which violated this ethical guideline

Protection from harm

• Participants must be protected from physical, psychological, and emotional harm before, during, and after the research process

• Researchers must:

  • anticipate all possible ways in which participants might experience negative outcomes as a result of their participation

  • put checks in place throughout the procedure to monitor participant wellbeing

  • have strategies ready to support participants who respond negatively to the procedure

  • ensure that participants leave the study in the same state — physically and psychologically — as when they entered

• Examples of failure to protect from harm:

  • In Milgram's (1963) study, many participants experienced severe stress and anxiety during the procedure, with some showing signs of extreme distress

    • The study is widely cited as a failure to adequately protect participants from psychological harm

  • In Zimbardo's (1973) study, participants assigned to the role of prisoner experienced significant psychological distress, while those assigned as guards engaged in increasingly cruel behavior

    • The study caused lasting psychological impact on both groups

Deception & debriefing

Deception

• Deception occurs when participants are given false information about the aim or procedure of the study, or when fake elements are introduced into the research, e.g.

  • Milgram (1963) falsely informed participants they were taking part in a study on punishment and learning rather than obedience

  • Confederates are commonly used in research where member of the research team who poses as a genuine participant without other participants being aware of their true role

• Deception is only ethically justifiable when:

  • the research cannot be conducted any other way

  • the potential benefits of the research outweigh the risks of deceiving participants

  • the deception does not cause significant harm

  • participants are fully debriefed afterward

  • it is kept to a minimum

    • The closer the study is to what participants were told they would be doing, the more ethically justifiable the deception is considered to be

• When deception is used, informed consent cannot be fully obtained in advance

  • This makes debriefing essential

Debriefing

• A debrief is a post-study procedure in which the researcher:

  • reveals the true aim and purpose of the study to participants

  • explains any deception that was used and why it was necessary

  • addresses any concerns or distress the participant may have experienced

  • provides participants with any support or resources they may need following their participation

  • gives participants the opportunity to withdraw their data if they wish, now that they are aware of the true nature of the study

• Debriefing is mandatory whenever deception has been used

  • This is because it restores the trust between researcher and participant and ensures participants leave the study without lasting negative effects

• A thorough debrief is one of the key ways researchers fulfill their duty of protection from harm

Confidentiality, anonymity & privacy

Confidentiality

• Participants' data must not be disclosed to or accessed by anyone outside of the research process

• When research is published, it must not contain any information that could identify individual participants

• Details about the location of the research should be kept to a minimum

• Confidentiality refers to keeping the content of participants' data private

Anonymity

• Anonymity refers to ensuring that participants' identities are not revealed at any stage of the research process

• Participants may be referred to by number, code, or initials rather than their full name throughout the study

• Anonymity is particularly important in research on sensitive topics (e.g. mental health, substance use, prejudice) where identification could cause harm to the participant

Privacy

• Researchers must respect the privacy of participants and not intrude into personal or private spaces beyond what is necessary for the research

• Observational research in public settings is generally acceptable

  • Observing behavior that is already occurring in a public context does not violate privacy

• Observing behavior in private settings without consent is a violation of the privacy guideline, e.g.

  • Covert observation in a private space such as a restroom, changing room, or private home would constitute a serious ethical violation

• The APA guidelines state that individuals should not be personally identifiable in published research unless they have given clear, unambiguous informed consent for this

APA guidelines for animal research

• The APA publishes separate ethical guidelines for research involving non-human animals, recognizing that animals cannot give informed consent and require additional protections

  • All animal research must be approved by an IRB before it can proceed

• Researchers working with non-human animals must:

  • ensure that the use of animals is justified by the potential scientific value of the research

  • ensure that any animals used in research are obtained legally and from accredited sources

  • ensure that wild animals are only used when necessary and must be captured and housed in a humane manner

  • use the minimum number of animals necessary to achieve valid results

  • minimize pain, suffering, distress, and lasting harm to animal participants

  • ensure that animals are housed and cared for appropriately, with access to adequate food, water, and shelter

  • only use procedures that cause pain or distress when no alternative exists and when the potential benefits of the research clearly outweigh the costs to the animals

  • ensure that all researchers working with animals are properly trained and qualified to do so

• The use of animals in research is justified when:

  • the research addresses a significant scientific question that cannot be investigated using human participants

  • the potential benefits to human or animal welfare outweigh the costs to the animals involved

  • all efforts have been made to minimize harm and distress