Research Methods: Types & Interpretation of Data (AQA GCSE Sociology): Exam Questions

Item A

From Item A, examine one strength of the data.

Item A

Identify and explain one advantage of using a longitudinal study to investigate changing attitudes to marriage.

Item B

From their research on family life, Christine Delphy and Diana Leonard found that family life was not as symmetrical as Peter Willmott and Michael Young previously suggested. They view the family as a patriarchal institution that serves the interests of men.

Delphy and Leonard used data collected from previous studies. The studies suggested that women were exploited in the family. Women did the bulk of the domestic labour regardless of whether they did paid work outside the home too. Time at home for men was leisure time, whereas time at home for women was also work time. They argue that men benefit most from the family.

Source: Delphy, C, and Leonard, D, Familiar Exploitation, 1992.

Identify and explain one disadvantage of using a case study to investigate conjugal roles within the family.

Item C

Glenys Lobban used content analysis to study the way in which gender roles were presented. She studied 179 stories in books used to teach reading in primary schools in the 1960s and 1970s. She found only 35 of these stories had female heroines, compared to 71 that had male heroes. Lobban concluded that boys were presented as more adventurous than girls. Girls were presented as more caring than boys, and as more interested in domestic matters.

More recent research has also found evidence of gender stereotyping. In 1992, Lesley Best and her students conducted content analysis to try and discover whether gender bias in children’s books had decreased. These researchers examined a sample of stories from 132 children’s books. They found that little had changed. She found only 44 female heroines, compared to 94 male heroes within those books.

Sources: Lobban, G, Data report on British reading schemes, The Times Educational Supplement, 1974. Best, L, Analysis of sex-roles in preschool books, Sociology Review: Philip Allan, 1992.

From Item C, examine one strength of using content analysis to research gender stereotyping in education.

Item C

Glenys Lobban used content analysis to study the way in which gender roles were presented. She studied 179 stories in books used to teach reading in primary schools in the 1960s and 1970s. She found only 35 of these stories had female heroines, compared to 71 that had male heroes. Lobban concluded that boys were presented as more adventurous than girls. Girls were presented as more caring than boys, and as more interested in domestic matters.

More recent research has also found evidence of gender stereotyping. In 1992, Lesley Best and her students conducted content analysis to try and discover whether gender bias in children’s books had decreased. These researchers examined a sample of stories from 132 children’s books. They found that little had changed. She found only 44 female heroines, compared to 94 male heroes within those books.

Sources: Lobban, G, Data report on British reading schemes, The Times Educational Supplement, 1974. Best, L, Analysis of sex-roles in preschool books, Sociology Review: Philip Allan, 1992.

Identify and explain one disadvantage of using structured interviews to investigate gender stereotyping in schools.

Item D

British sociologist Paul Willis wanted to understand the experience of schooling from the perspective of the students. He chose to study a group of 12 working-class boys. He observed these boys over their last 18 months of school, and their first few months at work. The 12 students formed a friendship group with a distinctive attitude to school. The ‘lads’, as they were known, had their own counter school subculture, which was opposed to the values promoted by the school.

This counter school subculture had certain features. The lads felt superior to the teachers and to the conformist students, who they called ‘the ear’oles’. They saw no value in the academic work of the school and no interest in gaining qualifications. Instead they aimed to ‘have a laff’ by entertaining themselves with misbehaviour, avoiding lessons, doing as little work as possible and generally rejecting the values of the school. To the lads, school was boring, whilst the outside world offered possibilities for excitement.

Source: Willis, P, Learning to Labour, 1977.

Identify and explain one advantage of using observations to investigate pupil subcultures.

Item A

The Crime Survey for England and Wales (CSEW) is a large-scale victim survey, conducted by the government since 1981. It measures the amount of crime in England and Wales by asking people about the crimes they have experienced during the past year. The sample size is approximately 50,000 respondents.

Percentage of adults who were victims of crime by age, year ending March 2020.

Source: Office for National Statistics

From Item A, examine one strength of the research.

Item C

Predicted life expectancy at birth for selected regions in England

Source: Office for National Statistics, 2021.

From Item C, examine one strength of using official statistics to research life expectancy.

Item A

From Item A, examine one strength of using statistics to research one-person households.

Item A

Describe the type of statistical data shown in Item A. Identify the trend shown by the data and explain one factor which may account for this trend.

Item A

Identify and explain one disadvantage of using unstructured interviews to investigate one-person households.

Item B

In 1982, Ann Oakley defined the conventional family as a nuclear family that consisted of a married couple and their children who lived together. She identified a number of features associated with conventional families:

• Women were expected to do unpaid work inside the home while men were expected to do paid work outside the home.

• The man’s economic power was linked to his income from paid work.

• The woman’s dependence on the man’s wages was an aspect of inequality.

Statistically the conventional family is no longer the norm, but according to Oakley the idea of the conventional family life remained a powerful one in society.

Source: Oakley, A, Conventional Families, 1982.

Identify one practical issue you would need to consider when using postal questionnaires to investigate role relationships within the family and explain how you would deal with this issue in your investigation.

Item C

Becky Francis studied the ways in which gender affects students learning in school. Her research involved three different London secondary schools. The schools were all mixed-sex, with a large majority of working-class pupils. Francis used observation to record classroom interaction and student behaviour during GCSE lessons. She also carried out individual interviews.

Francis observed two top set lessons and two lower set lessons in both English and Maths in each school. She was unable to accurately record all the interaction because of the sheer noise levels in some of the classes. This limited the classroom observation.

In the majority of the lessons observed, boys dominated the classroom interaction. They were louder, and more disruptive than the girls and took up more of the teachers’ attention.

Source: Francis, B, The Impact of Gender Constructions on Pupils’ Learning and Educational Choices, 2005.

Identify and explain one advantage of using non-participant observation to investigate classroom interactions as shown in Item C.

Item C

Becky Francis studied the ways in which gender affects students learning in school. Her research involved three different London secondary schools. The schools were all mixed-sex, with a large majority of working-class pupils. Francis used observation to record classroom interaction and student behaviour during GCSE lessons. She also carried out individual interviews.

Francis observed two top set lessons and two lower set lessons in both English and Maths in each school. She was unable to accurately record all the interaction because of the sheer noise levels in some of the classes. This limited the classroom observation.

In the majority of the lessons observed, boys dominated the classroom interaction. They were louder, and more disruptive than the girls and took up more of the teachers’ attention.

Source: Francis, B, The Impact of Gender Constructions on Pupils’ Learning and Educational Choices, 2005.

Identify and explain one advantage of using structured interviews to investigate working-class students’ experiences of school.

Item A

James Patrick studied a gang of teenage boys in Glasgow. He used covert participant observation. He gained access to the gang by befriending ‘Tim’, a gang member who acted as his protector. He met with the gang on 12 occasions between October 1966 and January 1967.

Patrick found the gang to be dangerous – some members became suspicious of him when he chose not to carry a weapon, and was reluctant to fully participate in fights. He left the gang abruptly when the violence became too intense.

Patrick was scared of the gang and waited years before writing up his notes and publishing his work to protect their identities.

Patrick’s work focused on the social conditions that led to the formation of the gang, such as poverty, unemployment and poor housing conditions.

Source: Patrick, J, A Glasgow Gang Observed, 2013.

From Item A, examine one strength of the research.

Item A

James Patrick studied a gang of teenage boys in Glasgow. He used covert participant observation. He gained access to the gang by befriending ‘Tim’, a gang member who acted as his protector. He met with the gang on 12 occasions between October 1966 and January 1967.

Patrick found the gang to be dangerous – some members became suspicious of him when he chose not to carry a weapon, and was reluctant to fully participate in fights. He left the gang abruptly when the violence became too intense.

Patrick was scared of the gang and waited years before writing up his notes and publishing his work to protect their identities.

Patrick’s work focused on the social conditions that led to the formation of the gang, such as poverty, unemployment and poor housing conditions.

Source: Patrick, J, A Glasgow Gang Observed, 2013.

Identify and explain one disadvantage of using a case study to investigate a teenage gang.

Item B

Identify and explain one disadvantage of using official statistics to understand the extent of crime committed by women.

Item C

In 2020, Public Health England produced a report into the inequalities faced by ethnic minority women in their experiences of pregnancy and childbirth.

Researchers used a range of secondary sources to compile the report, including existing peer-reviewed smaller scale academic research, government research and guidance. The report found that women from Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic backgrounds were up to five times more likely to die during pregnancy than white women. A range of potential issues were considered, such as language barriers, poorer health, concentration in lower social classes and less chance of accessing and engaging with pregnancy services.

The report went on to recommend a range of interventions including improved access to maternity services, improved personalised care by the NHS and encouraging healthier lifestyles.

Source: Public Health, Reducing the inequality of outcomes for women from Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic communities and their babies, 2020.

From Item C, examine one weakness of the research.

Item C

In 2020, Public Health England produced a report into the inequalities faced by ethnic minority women in their experiences of pregnancy and childbirth.

Researchers used a range of secondary sources to compile the report, including existing peer-reviewed smaller scale academic research, government research and guidance. The report found that women from Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic backgrounds were up to five times more likely to die during pregnancy than white women. A range of potential issues were considered, such as language barriers, poorer health, concentration in lower social classes and less chance of accessing and engaging with pregnancy services.

The report went on to recommend a range of interventions including improved access to maternity services, improved personalised care by the NHS and encouraging healthier lifestyles.

Source: Public Health, Reducing the inequality of outcomes for women from Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic communities and their babies, 2020.

Identify and explain one advantage of using previously published research to investigate gender inequality in accessing health care.

Item C

Number of A-level examination entries in the United Kingdom by gender, 2019

Source: Joint Council for Qualifications (JCQ). The JCQ is an organisation representing the largest qualification providers in the United Kingdom. Each year the JCQ collates and publishes examination information.

From Item C, examine one strength of using the number of entries for different A-level examinations to research gender differences in education.

Item C

Number of A-level examination entries in the United Kingdom by gender, 2019

Source: Joint Council for Qualifications (JCQ). The JCQ is an organisation representing the largest qualification providers in the United Kingdom. Each year the JCQ collates and publishes examination information.

Identify and explain one disadvantage of using group interviews to investigate gender-based subject choices in schools.

Item D

According to sociologist Emile Durkheim, the main function of education was passing on society’s norms and values. He believed that subjects like history reinforce shared norms and values, encouraging children to see themselves as part of society.

In Durkheim’s view, rules should be strictly enforced in order for children to learn self-discipline and to understand that misbehaviour damages society as a whole. He argued that by experiencing sanctions at school and by respecting the school rules, children learn to respect rules in society.

Source: Durkheim, E, Moral Education, 1925

Identify and explain one possible disadvantage of using a longitudinal study to investigate the effects of home-schooling on students.

Item A

There are concerns from some social commentators about the relatively high level of youth crime in society.

The Ministry of Justice produced a report entitled ‘Youth Justice Statistics: 2018 to 2019’, in which they presented the national statistics on recorded criminal behaviour amongst young people (below the age of 18). The report stated that there were 21 700 children either cautioned or sentenced in that time. Of this group:

• 85% were male

• 15% were female

• 73% were White

• 27% were Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic

• 23% were aged 10–14

• 77% were aged 15–17.

Source: Ministry of Justice, 2020

From Item A, examine one weakness of using government-reported statistics to research youth crime.

Item A

There are concerns from some social commentators about the relatively high level of youth crime in society.

The Ministry of Justice produced a report entitled ‘Youth Justice Statistics: 2018 to 2019’, in which they presented the national statistics on recorded criminal behaviour amongst young people (below the age of 18). The report stated that there were 21 700 children either cautioned or sentenced in that time. Of this group:

• 85% were male

• 15% were female

• 73% were White

• 27% were Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic

• 23% were aged 10–14

• 77% were aged 15–17.

Source: Ministry of Justice, 2020

Identify and explain one disadvantage of using overt observation to study anti-social behaviour amongst young people.

Item C

The Higher Education Statistics Agency (HESA) produced a report on university enrolment by personal characteristics from 2014/15 to 2018/19. This report found that the vast majority of students that attend university are from white backgrounds, although the number of students from minority ethnic backgrounds is increasing year on year.

From Item C, examine one strength of the research.

Item C

The Higher Education Statistics Agency (HESA) produced a report on university enrolment by personal characteristics from 2014/15 to 2018/19. This report found that the vast majority of students that attend university are from white backgrounds, although the number of students from minority ethnic backgrounds is increasing year on year.

Identify and explain one advantage of using ethnography as a research method to investigate life chances.

Item A

Despite concerns over the increase in the number of children in single-parent families, recent research has found that children raised by a single parent are no less happy than those living with two biological parents. Rather, it is the quality of relationships at home which are most strongly linked to a child’s well-being.

Researchers analysed data from the Millennium Cohort Study, which was made up of 12 877 children aged seven, in 2008, from across the UK. The children came from three family types: those living with two biological parents; those living with a step-parent and a biological parent; and those with just a single parent.

The seven-year-olds were asked the question: “How often do you feel happy?” Of the children living with a lone parent, 36 per cent said they were happy “all the time” while the remaining 64 per cent reported being happy “sometimes or never”.

Exactly the same percentages were recorded when the question was put to children from the other family types.

The results were largely unchanged when other factors which could influence a child’s well-being were taken into account, such as their parents’ social class or the affluence of the area in which they live.

From Item A, examine one strength of the research.

Item A

Despite concerns over the increase in the number of children in single-parent families, recent research has found that children raised by a single parent are no less happy than those living with two biological parents. Rather, it is the quality of relationships at home which are most strongly linked to a child’s well-being.

Researchers analysed data from the Millennium Cohort Study, which was made up of 12 877 children aged seven, in 2008, from across the UK. The children came from three family types: those living with two biological parents; those living with a step-parent and a biological parent; and those with just a single parent.

The seven-year-olds were asked the question: “How often do you feel happy?” Of the children living with a lone parent, 36 per cent said they were happy “all the time” while the remaining 64 per cent reported being happy “sometimes or never”.

Exactly the same percentages were recorded when the question was put to children from the other family types.

The results were largely unchanged when other factors which could influence a child’s well-being were taken into account, such as their parents’ social class or the affluence of the area in which they live.

Identify and explain one advantage of using unstructured interviews to investigate relationships between family members.

Item C

Many sociologists are concerned about the relatively poor performance of working class pupils when compared to their middle class peers. According to a study by the universities of Leicester and Leeds middle class pupils do better because parents put more effort into their children’s education. The researchers suggested that policies aimed at improving parental effort could be effective in increasing children's educational attainment. Effort was measured using indicators of a student's attitude, such as the answers given by 16-year-olds to questions including whether they think school is a "waste of time'', and teachers' views about students' laziness. Other factors studied were the parents' interest in their children's education, measured by, for example, whether they read to their child.

The research, Must Try Harder, used the National Child Development Study, which follows individuals born in a given week in 1958 throughout their lives.

Identify and explain one disadvantage of using questionnaires to investigate the literacy skills of parents.

Item A

From Item A, examine one strength of research using official statistics on crime.

Item A

Identify and explain one advantage of using observation to investigate policing in urban areas.

What term is commonly used by sociologists to describe research that involves collecting data from the same sample group over time?

Item C

The sociologist Steve Craine studied the lives of 39 unqualified urban school leavers, 19 males and 20 females, over a ten year period between 1980 and 1990. As a youth worker he was familiar with the area in which these young people lived and he used both his own observations and interviews in his research.

Craine looked at how these young people’s lives developed and how they made choices about what to do next. Many of the members of this group failed to secure long-term employment. They experienced regular cycles of unemployment, government schemes and work in the informal economy. Some individuals became involved in criminal activities. Only those who received appropriate support from professionals or family members were able to escape this cycle.

Identify and explain one disadvantage of using structured interviews to research young people’s experience of unemployment.