Social Class & Education: The Importance of Cultural Factors (WJEC Eduqas GCSE Sociology): Revision Note

Parental attitudes

• Another explanation of how the home environment and upbringing can affect educational achievement is parental attitudes and expectations

• Parents play a crucial role in shaping children’s attitudes toward education

• Some researchers have suggested that the values between middle-class and working-class parents differ, which affects their children's educational outcomes

• It is argued that middle-class parents are more likely to provide their children with attitudes that align with school values, encouraging ambition and perseverance

Parental encouragement

• Parental involvement and aspirations have a strong impact on achievement

• Middle-class parents are more confident interacting with schools, attending parents’ evenings, and helping with homework

• Working-class parents often value education but may lack the knowledge or confidence to navigate the system

• Reay (1998) found that middle-class mothers were more articulate and assertive when dealing with teachers, giving their children an advantage

Cultural deprivation

• Cultural deprivation is a theory that suggests that working-class and ethnic minority students lack the 'correct' values, attitudes, skills and experiences to succeed in education

• It can explain how the home environment can affect the educational achievement of working-class children

• Bernstein and Young (1967) argue that middle-class children benefit from greater cultural resources that help them succeed in education, e.g.,

  • Holidays abroad, museum visits, and family trips encourage curiosity and learning

  • Access to books, educational toys, and computers supports early intellectual development

• Working-class children are less likely to have these experiences, leaving them less familiar with the knowledge valued by schools

Cultural capital

• Pierre Bourdieu, a Marxist sociologist, introduced the concept of cultural capital to explain how middle-class culture gives students an advantage

• Cultural capital refers to the knowledge, attitudes, skills, language, and values that enable success in education

• Schools are dominated by middle-class culture, which means:

  • Middle-class children are rewarded for displaying behaviours and tastes that match those valued by teachers

  • Working-class children are disadvantaged because their culture is often viewed as inferior

• Bourdieu argued that the education system is ‘rigged’ to ensure the middle and upper classes stay at the top. They may do this by:

  • challenging teachers about their child's learning

  • knowing what books or resources to buy and having the money to buy them

  • frequently visiting or contacting the school as they are interested in their child's progress

  • having the qualifications, knowledge and experience to support their child with homework

Language skills

• Children need strong language and communication skills to succeed at school — to understand teachers, write essays, and express themselves clearly

• Middle-class children often have a wider vocabulary and are encouraged to ask questions and express opinions

• Bernstein distinguished between two speech codes:

  • Elaborated code — complex, grammatically correct language used by the middle class, similar to that used by teachers and in textbooks

  • Restricted code — simpler, context-based language more common among the working class

• Schools value the elaborated code, giving middle-class children an advantage

Social Capital

• Social capital refers to the networks and social connections parents can use to support their children’s education

• Middle-class parents are more likely to have networks of friends and other parents who can:

  • give advice on the best schools or teachers

  • help them understand how to “work the system”

  • know how to complain or get support effectively when needed

Key thinkers: Ball et al. (1994) on the impact of market forces on parental choice

Method

• Ball et al. (1994) investigated the impact of educational policies introduced under the 1988 Education Reform Act, which aimed to create a “market” in education

• Their goal was to find out whether marketisation widened the achievement gap between middle-class and working-class students

• They conducted interviews with teachers, governors, and headteachers in 15 secondary schools, as well as parents of primary school children

• They also used secondary data, including published exam league tables.

Findings

• Publishing league tables encouraged schools to compete for students, particularly those who were academically able and whose parents were motivated and well-informed

• Some schools reintroduced streaming and setting to focus resources on high-achieving students who could boost exam results

• Material resources gave middle-class parents an advantage — for example, owning a car meant they could travel further to access better schools

• Working-class parents were more likely to send their children to local schools, while middle-class parents, with greater cultural and social capital, felt more confident navigating the system and “playing the game”

Conclusions

• Marketisation and educational reform had increased inequality between social classes

• Middle-class parents benefitted most, using their economic, cultural, and social capital to access the best schools and opportunities for their children

• This contrasts sharply with Parsons’ functionalist view that education is a meritocratic system based on equal opportunity

• Marketisation encouraged schools to prioritise recruiting high-achieving, privileged students, often neglecting those with additional needs or from disadvantaged backgrounds

Evaluation of cultural factors

• Cultural explanations can be unfair

  • Some theories unfairly blame working-class parents for their children doing less well at school

  • These ideas ignore how schools and government policies can make it harder for some children to succeed

• Working-class parents are supportive

  • Many working-class parents value education and want their children to do well

  • They may lack time, money, or confidence to help in the same way as middle-class parents, not interest

• Other factors matter too

  • Class, gender, and ethnicity all affect how well students do in school

  • E.g., working-class white boys tend to do less well, while middle-class pupils from all backgrounds usually achieve highly

• Meritocracy is a myth

  • The idea that school is fair and rewards effort (a meritocracy) isn’t always true

  • Middle-class children often start with more support and resources, so they find it easier to succeed