Age as a Social Construction & Norms Across Societies (WJEC Eduqas GCSE Sociology): Revision Note

Age as a social construction

• Chronological age measures how long someone has lived — their age in years

• Sociologists argue that age is socially constructed — meaning that society decides what behaviours, rights and responsibilities are appropriate at different ages

• What it means to be a “child”, “teenager”, or “elderly person” changes across cultures, time, and place

• Expectations about age are shaped by social norms, laws, and cultural values, not biology alone

  • E.g. a 14-year-old in the UK is seen as a child and must attend school, while in some other countries a 14-year-old might already be working full-time or be married

• Life chances consequence:

  • Because ideas about age change across societies, people’s rights, independence and opportunities depend heavily on where and when they live

Childhood as a social construction

• Sociologist Philippe Ariès (1962) argued that childhood did not exist before modern times

  • In medieval Europe, children over age 5 were treated as small adults — working alongside adults in the fields, workshops or at home

  • The idea of childhood as a special, protected stage of life developed more recently

    • Laws such as compulsory education and child labour bans created a clear separation between childhood and adulthood

    • Childhood became associated with dependence, innocence, and protection

• Views of childhood also vary across cultures

  • E.g. in some poorer or rural societies, children still contribute economically — working on farms or caring for siblings — showing that childhood expectations differ globally

• Life chances consequence:

  • In societies that protect and educate children, they have more opportunities to develop skills and improve future life chances.

Youth and adolescence

• Youth is seen as the transition period between childhood and adulthood

  • Sociologists note that “teenagers” only emerged as a social group in the 1950s — linked to rising education levels, consumer culture, and media attention

• Young people gain more independence, but not full adult rights, e.g. voting, drinking age

• Norms around youth behaviour often reflect class, gender and ethnicity:

  • Working-class youth may enter work earlier

  • Middle-class youth often remain in education longer

• Life chances consequence:

  • Youth experiences depend on social background — those with wealth and family support can delay adulthood, while others must become independent early

Adulthood and status

• In the UK adulthood usually means independence — finishing education, working full-time, forming relationships, and starting families

• However, these milestones vary by culture and era:

  • In some cultures adulthood begins with marriage or initiation ceremonies

  • In others, adulthood is linked to economic independence

• In Britain, rising housing costs and student debt mean that many young adults now delay leaving home and starting families

• Life chances consequence:

  • Economic conditions, not just age, shape when people can achieve adult roles and responsibilities

Older age and social attitudes

• In the UK, ageing is often viewed negatively, with old age linked to decline and dependence

• Other cultures value older people for their wisdom and experience

  • In India elderly relatives are often cared for at home and respected as family decision-makers

  • In many tribal African societies, such as the Akan of Ghana and the Zulu of South Africa, elders are custodians of wisdom and tradition

  • In Native American communities, such as the Navajo (Diné) and Lakota Sioux, elders are teachers and storytellers who pass down spiritual knowledge and cultural traditions

• Life chances consequence:

  • Societies that value the elderly tend to provide better social and economic support

  • In contrast, ageist societies may isolate older people and ignore their contributions

Norms of age across societies

• Social expectations about age differ widely:

  • Education: in the UK most children stay in school until 18, but in some countries schooling ends much earlier

  • Work: child labour laws mean young people cannot work full-time in the UK, but in developing countries many children work from an early age

  • Marriage: average age at marriage in the UK is around 30, but in some societies people marry in their teens

  • Elder care: western countries often rely on care homes, while other cultures expect families to care for elders at home

• Life chances consequence:

  • Where societies protect children and value elders, individuals are more likely to experience dignity, education, and support throughout life

The changing meaning of age

• Age expectations are not fixed — they evolve as society changes

• Media and technology have blurred age boundaries:

  • Middle-aged adults are encouraged to stay “young” through fashion and fitness (“50 is the new 30”)

  • Older people are more visible in media and politics than in the past

• People now live longer, healthier lives, leading to new social roles for older adults, e.g. volunteering, caring, or returning to education

• Life chances consequence:

  • As lifespans increase, the meaning of each life stage shifts — bringing both opportunities and challenges for individuals and society