Age, Inequality & Life Chances (WJEC Eduqas GCSE Sociology): Revision Note

What is age?

• Chronological age refers to how long a person has been alive

  • E.g. someone born in 2010 is 14 years old in 2024

• Biological age is based on physical changes linked to age, e.g. puberty, menopause

• Social age refers to how society views and treats people at different ages

  • People are judged by expectations of what is “normal” for their age

    • E.g. people might be surprised by an 80-year-old marathon runner or a 14-year-old who loves knitting

  • Age determines rights and responsibilities, such as voting or driving

• Life chances consequence:

  • Age affects how much power, respect and opportunity people have in society — both the young and the old can face discrimination and disadvantage

Ageism and inequality

• Ageism means treating someone unfairly because of their age

• Stereotypes can lead to prejudice — such as assuming that young people are lazy or that older people are slow

• Age UK (2011) found that age discrimination was the most common form of discrimination in Europe

  • The groups most affected were:

    • 50–64-year-olds

    • 15–24-year-olds

• The Equality Act 2010 makes it illegal to discriminate against someone due to their age in work, services or education

• Employment Tribunal data (2011–2012) shows that thousands of age discrimination cases were filed each year

• Life chances consequence:

  • Ageism limits access to jobs, fair pay, promotion, and even healthcare — reducing life chances for both young and old people

Education

• Young people:

  • Age affects educational experience and transitions into adulthood

  • Young people from working-class backgrounds are more likely to leave school early or struggle to access higher education due to financial barriers

    • Some young people become NEETs (not in education, employment or training)

    • Between July and September 2024, 13.2% of 16–24-year-olds were NEETs

  • Students from wealthier families can stay in education longer, supported by parents

• Older people:

  • Older learners may face barriers such as cost, lack of confidence, or limited digital skills

  • Lifelong learning opportunities are available, but participation declines with age

• Life chances consequence:

  • Limited access to education restricts career opportunities and income for young people, while older people risk digital exclusion and reduced employability

Work and employment

• Young people:

  • Young people are often viewed as inexperienced, unreliable or lazy (Demos, 2014)

  • In 2016 the government reported youth unemployment at 13%, with around 600 000 young people jobless

  • National Minimum Wage is lower for under-21s, meaning young workers earn less than older colleagues for similar jobs

• Older people:

  • Older workers may be denied promotion or retraining opportunities because employers assume they can’t learn new skills

  • Barclays’ Silver Eagles programme helps older customers with technology, showing the value of older workers’ experience

  • Some companies miss out on the talents of older workers due to stereotypes

• Life chances consequence:

  • Both young and older people can face barriers in the labour market — youth unemployment and age discrimination reduce income, status, and job security

Income and wealth

• Young people:

  • Young people may earn less due to lower minimum wage and unstable work, e.g. zero-hour contracts or part-time jobs

  • Many younger people depend financially on parents or return home after university — they are known as the “boomerang generation”

• Older people:

  • The income of older people varies depending on pensions and savings

  • Those with occupational pensions enjoy financial security, while others relying on the state pension face poverty

  • Retirement can reduce income and affect social status, especially for those without savings

• Life chances consequence:

  • Wealth gaps between generations mean younger people struggle to afford housing, while some older people face poverty after retirement

Health and wellbeing

• Young people:

  • Increasing rates of mental health problems, stress, and anxiety are linked to school pressure, exams, and insecure work

• Older people:

  • Older adults may face ageism in healthcare, with illnesses dismissed as “just old age”

  • Age UK (2015) found some elderly patients were denied treatments available to younger people

  • Loneliness, stress, and poverty contribute to poor physical and mental health

• Life chances consequence:

  • Access to quality healthcare and mental health support can depend on age, leaving both young and older people at risk of neglect or poor treatment

Crime

• Young people:

  • Often stereotyped as troublemakers or linked to criminality

  • Stuart Hall (1970s) found the media created a moral panic around “mugging”, especially targeting young Black men

  • These stereotypes fuel negative policing and social mistrust

• Older people:

  • Less likely to commit crime but more likely to fear it

  • Vulnerable to fraud and scams, particularly online or phone-based

• Life chances consequence:

  • Young people may suffer reputation damage and reduced job prospects, while older people experience fear and isolation due to crime

Family life

• Young people:

  • Many delay marriage, children, and home ownership due to financial pressures

  • Rising housing costs and student debt lead to “boomerang children” moving back in with parents

• Older people:

  • Older adults may depend on family for care, or may provide childcare for grandchildren

  • The “sandwich generation” (mostly middle-aged women) support both children and elderly parents

• Life chances consequence:

  • Intergenerational dependency can strain family finances and independence, affecting the wellbeing of both young and old

Media representation

• Young people:

  • Often portrayed as lazy, rebellious, or criminal (“hoodies”, “yobs”)

  • Stereotyped as lacking respect, discipline, or ambition

• Older people:

  • Frequently shown as forgetful, stubborn, or out of touch

  • Seen as a burden rather than contributors to society

  • However, modern shows like Grace and Frankie or Last Tango in Halifax present older people as active, wise, and humorous

• Life chances consequence:

  • Negative media portrayals reinforce ageist stereotypes, shaping public attitudes that reduce respect, inclusion, and equality for both young and older people

Sociological perspectives on age, inequality & life chances

Marxism

• Marxists argue that ideas about age benefit capitalism:

  • Young people are used as cheap labour, filling low-paid or insecure jobs

  • Older workers may be pushed into early retirement to make way for younger, cheaper staff

• The elderly may be portrayed as a “burden” because they don’t generate profit

• Marxists see age inequality as part of the wider exploitation of workers:

  • Capitalism benefits when the young are underpaid and the old are undervalued

• Media portrayal of youth as troublemakers and pensioners as dependent helps justify low wages and underfunded services

• Both young and older age groups have less power in the workforce and are more likely to face financial insecurity, reinforcing class-based inequality

Functionalism

• Functionalists believe age differences are necessary for social order

• Each stage of life has a role:

  • Children learn and are socialised through education

  • Adults work and contribute to the economy

  • Older people retire, creating job opportunities for the younger generation

• This supports the smooth running of society

• However, too much inequality can become dysfunctional — for example when ageism leads to wasted skills or when young people can’t find stable work

• Functionalists argue that if older people remain active and contribute, e.g. through volunteering or caring roles, society benefits

Feminism

• Feminist sociologists highlight how age and gender combine to disadvantage women

• Many women form part of the “sandwich generation” — caring for both their children and ageing parents, often while working

  • This triple burden of paid work, domestic work, and caregiving increases stress and limits career progression

• Older women are more likely than men to:

  • live alone in later life; due to widowhood and longer life expectancy

  • have smaller pensions, as many worked part-time or took career breaks for childcare

  • experience poverty in retirement

• Feminists argue that society undervalues the unpaid caring work done mainly by women, especially in older age

• Media stereotypes of older women as “past it” or “invisible” reinforce ageist and sexist attitudes