Ethnicity, Inequality & Life Chances (WJEC Eduqas GCSE Sociology): Revision Note

Ethnicity, inequality & life chances

What is ethnicity?

• An ethnic group is a social group whose members share a common identity — such as:

  • language

  • religion

  • culture

  • traditions

• People belonging to an ethnic group that is different from the majority are known as ethnic minorities

• The UK is a culturally diverse society, home to people of Irish, Polish, Indian, African-Caribbean, and many other heritages

• However, some immigration has led to racism

  • The first racist riots were in Brixton in the 1950s, following the wave of invited immigration after the Second World War

Racism and prejudice

• Race has been used in the past to classify people by physical features, but most sociologists argue that these differences are socially constructed, not biological

• Sociologists acknowledge that racism and prejudice exist

  • Racism occurs when people are treated unfairly or discriminated against because of their ethnicity

  • Prejudice occurs when people prejudge an individual or group

• Life chances consequence:

  • Ethnicity can influence access to power, opportunities and equality in areas like education, work and health

Ethnicity and power

• Around 18% of the UK population are from ethnic minority backgrounds (Census, 2021)

• Despite this, people from ethic minority backgrounds are under-represented in positions of power:

  • After the 2015 General Election only 6% of MPs were from ethnic minority backgrounds

    • After the 2024 election this rose to 13% of MPs — the most diverse Parliament ever

  • In 2016 only 5% of judges identified as Black, Asian or Minority Ethnic

• Rishi Sunak became the UK’s first British-Asian Prime Minister (2022), showing progress but also highlighting how rare such representation is

• Life chances consequence:

  • Under-representation means that ethnic minorities have less influence over political and legal decisions that affect their lives

Education

• Ethnic minority students’ achievement varies between groups:

  • Chinese and Indian pupils often outperform white British students

  • Black Caribbean, Pakistani and Bangladeshi pupils tend to achieve lower results

• Language barriers, teacher expectations and institutional racism (see below) can disadvantage some groups

• The Macpherson Report (1999) identified institutional racism in the police, but the idea also applies to schools — when systems and policies unintentionally disadvantage minority groups

• Life chances consequence:

  • Unequal achievement affects access to higher education and high-status jobs later in life

Work and employment

• There has been progress in workplace equality, but inequality persists:

  • The Equality and Human Rights Commission (2016) found that people from ethnic minorities were two and a half times more likely to be unemployed than white people

  • Even with university degrees, they earned 23.1% less on average; this is known as the ethnicity pay gap

  • Pakistani and Bangladeshi men and women are less likely to get professional jobs

  • Chinese and Indian workers have similar chances to their white British peers

• Discrimination and unconscious bias continue to affect hiring and promotion

• Life chances consequence:

  • Lower pay, insecure work and fewer promotions limit wealth and career progression for many ethnic minority groups

Income and wealth

• Income inequality between ethnic groups remains significant:

  • White British households have, on average, higher incomes and savings

  • Pakistani and Bangladeshi households are more likely to experience low pay and poverty

• Wealth inequalities reflect employment discrimination, housing inequality and historic disadvantage

• Life chances consequence:

  • Lower income affects housing quality, education access, and health outcomes, keeping disadvantage across generations

Health and wellbeing

• Ethnicity affects both physical and mental health outcomes

• A Nursing Times (2015) report found ethnic minorities generally experience worse health and shorter life expectancy than white people

• Causes include:

  • poorer housing and working conditions

  • language barriers when accessing healthcare

  • stress caused by racism and discrimination

• The Nursing Times (2013) found that 30% of British people described themselves as racially prejudiced — which can affect healthcare interactions

• Life chances consequence:

  • Racism and poverty combine to increase illness and reduce access to quality healthcare for some ethnic minority groups

Crime and justice

• The Macpherson Report (1999) exposed institutional racism (see below) in the Metropolitan Police after the murder of Stephen Lawrence

• Ethnic minorities are:

  • more likely to be stopped and searched by police

  • over-represented in the prison population

  • under-represented in senior roles, such as judges and police chiefs

• The Race Relations Acts (1965, 1976) and the Equality Act (2010) aimed to prevent discrimination, but inequalities remain

• Life chances consequence:

  • Over-policing and bias in the justice system limit trust in institutions and can harm opportunities for ethnic minority communities

Institutional racism

• Institutional racism is when policies, systems or practices in organisations disadvantage ethnic minorities — even without deliberate intent

• Despite progress, Amnesty International (2024) and the Runnymede Trust argue that institutional racism still contributes to racist violence and unequal life chances

• Life chances consequence:

  • Institutional racism means even well-educated or skilled ethnic minority individuals may face barriers in work, education or justice

Family life

• Family structures and traditions differ across ethnic groups

• Extended families and strong community ties can provide support networks

• However, low income, housing inequality and discrimination can create pressure on family stability

• Life chances consequence:

  • Strong family and community bonds can improve resilience, but economic and social inequalities still affect outcomes

Religion, belief and ethnicity

• Religion often forms part of ethnic identity, influencing culture, traditions, and social belonging

• Some ethnic minorities also belong to religious minority groups, which can increase experiences of discrimination and exclusion

  • Islamophobia (prejudice against Muslims) has grown in the UK since the early 2000s — often linked to media stereotyping and terrorism fears

    • The Runnymede Trust (2017) found Muslims face higher unemployment, lower pay, and greater housing discrimination than average

  • Anti-Semitism continues to affect Jewish communities, particularly online and in politics

• Some faith schools improve educational achievement for minority groups, but others have been criticised for segregation

• Life chances consequence:

  • Religious discrimination can reduce access to jobs, housing, and safety, while strong faith communities can also offer support, identity, and resilience

Media representation

• The media shapes public attitudes toward ethnicity

• Media may present racist stereotypes

  • 1970s TV shows such as Love Thy Neighbour and Mind Your Language portrayed openly racist stereotypes

  • BBC research (2002) found that ethnic minorities were rarely shown on TV, and when they were, their roles were often simplified or stereotypical

  • Toyin Agbetu (2006) found that Black people were often portrayed as criminals or entertainers, reinforcing negative stereotypes

• The lack of ethnic minority presenters and actors means fewer positive role models and less understanding of diversity in British society

  • Lenny Henry has long campaigned for better representation and more authentic portrayals of Black British people

• The Independent (2014) reported that 78% of people believed that the media encouraged racism

Stereotypes and moral panics

• The media use stereotypes, presenting minorities as “others” — different or problematic

  • Sociologist Jan van Dijk found that the media often link ethnic minorities with crime, terrorism, or cultural problems, while ignoring positive contributions

• Stuart Hall (1970s) argued the media created a moral panic about “mugging”, which became strongly associated with young Black men

  • Hall (a Marxist) believed these stories were used to distract public attention from wider government and economic problems

Later moral panics

• More recent moral panics have focused on ethnic groups such as Asian youth and Muslim communities, especially after the terror attacks in London and Paris

• Rap music and the “gangsta” culture have also been blamed for promoting violence and crime

• Life chances consequence:

  • Stereotypes and moral panics reinforce prejudice, justify discrimination, and make it harder for ethnic minority groups to be seen as equal citizens — limiting their access to fair treatment in work, education, and public life

Sociological perspectives on ethnicity, inequality & life chances

Marxist view

• Castles and Kosack (1973) argue racism benefits the ruling class by dividing the working class

• Ethnic minorities are used as a reserve army of labour — hired in economic booms, fired in recessions

• Marxists argue that employers like immigration because they are able to exploit the

  migrants for low wages, which boosts the ruling class’s profits

• Racism also acts as a scapegoat; ethnic groups are blamed for unemployment or social problems, distracting from inequality caused by capitalism

New Right

• Some New Right thinkers, such as Charles Murray (1984), link minority ethnic groups to an underclass, claiming welfare dependency discourages work

• Critics argue this view blames victims of inequality rather than addressing discrimination

Functionalism

• Functionalists see immigration and ethnic diversity as potentially positive for society — bringing cultural variety and new ideas — but say that too much immigration can be dysfunctional, creating conflict and division