Gender Inequality & Life Chances (WJEC Eduqas GCSE Sociology): Revision Note

Gender inequality & life chances

• Gender remains one of the most significant sources of inequality in the UK today

• Gender inequality refers to unequal access to resources, opportunities and rewards based on gender

• Patriarchal structures limit women’s opportunities in work, politics and power and shapes harmful expectations for men

  • E.g. patriarchy expects men to be strong and suppress their emotions

• Gender influences outcomes across education, work, family, health, and crime, affecting both men and women differently

Education

• Girls now outperform boys academically at GCSE and A Level

• However, subject choice remains gendered:

  • Boys dominate STEM subjects

  • Girls dominate arts, humanities and caring subjects

• Teachers and peers often reinforce stereotypes — girls are praised for good behaviour and boys for confidence and leadership

• Feminists argue that this reflects hidden curriculum sexism, where schools reward girls for traditionally “feminine” behaviour and channel boys into higher-status subjects

• Life chances consequence:

  • Women’s educational success does not always translate into equal job or pay opportunities

Work and income

• Women’s participation in employment has increased, but inequality persists:

  • Gender pay gap (ONS, 2024): women earn 7% less than men on average

  • Occupational segregation:

    • 85% of construction workers are men (UK Trade Skills Index, 2023)

    • Childcare and nursing remain female-dominated

  • Vertical segregation: men hold most senior roles, even in female-heavy sectors like teaching

  • Motherhood penalty: women’s earnings drop after having children

  • Dual burden (Duncombe & Marsden, 1993): women juggle paid work, domestic work and emotional labour

  • Triple shift: many also care for children or elderly relatives

The glass ceiling

• Feminists argue that workplace inequality persists because of structural and cultural barriers:

  • Women are excluded from informal male networks

  • Senior managers often assume that women will prioritise family over career

  • Part-time roles limit advancement

• This “invisible ceiling” stops women from reaching the highest positions

• Life chances consequence:

  • Women have lower lifetime earnings, less pension wealth and reduced career mobility, leading to fewer life chances compared to men

Legislation and equality

• There are two major laws aimed at reducing workplace inequality:

  • Equal Pay Act (1970) – employers must pay men and women equally for the same or equivalent work

  • Sex Discrimination Act (1975) – it is unlawful to discriminate on the grounds of sex in employment, education and training

• These laws have narrowed gaps, but cultural sexism and occupational hierarchies still maintain inequality

• Feminists argue that legislation cannot remove deep-rooted patriarchy and social attitudes that privilege men

Family life and patriarchy

• Feminists such as Sylvia Walby (1990) describe patriarchy as a system of male dominance found in the home, workplace, and wider society

• Women still carry most domestic and caring responsibilities — even when employed full-time

• New Right thinkers argue that traditional gender roles are functional, providing stability and clear divisions of labour

• Feminists reject this, seeing such roles as oppressive and limiting women’s independence

Crisis of masculinity

• Deindustrialisation and the decline of male manual jobs have weakened men’s traditional provider role

• Men face identity uncertainty and pressure to succeed, while being expected to be emotionally reserved

• This has been linked to higher male mental health issues and suicide rates

• Life chances consequence:

  • Women’s unpaid work limits their career progression

  • Men’s emotional repression impacts wellbeing and family relationships

Health and wellbeing

• Gender affects health outcomes in different ways:

  • Women live longer, but report higher stress, anxiety and depression due to workload and caring roles

  • Men have shorter life expectancy and higher rates of suicide, alcoholism, and work-related deaths

• Traditional masculinity discourages men from seeking help or expressing vulnerability

• Feminists link women’s poorer mental health to patriarchal pressure to meet multiple conflicting expectations (e.g., carer, worker, mother)

• Life chances consequence:

  • Both genders experience inequality in health, but for different sociological reasons

Media, socialisation and gender norms

• Gendered socialisation begins early:

  • Families, schools, and peers reinforce gender expectations

  • Ann Oakley (1974) identified four processes:

    • Manipulation: encouraging gender-appropriate behaviour

    • Canalisation: directing children toward gendered toys/activities

    • Verbal appellations: using gendered terms, e.g. “pretty girl” and “strong boy”

    • Different activities: assigning gendered domestic tasks

• Schools reinforce these norms through subject choice and teacher expectations:

  • Boys are encouraged towards science and sport; girls towards arts and caring subjects

• These expectations act as self-fulfilling prophecies, reproducing gender inequality across generations

  • E.g., a boy told he’s “strong like his dad” may suppress emotions, while a girl praised for being “helpful” may internalise a caring role, limiting career aspirations

• The media reinforces and challenges these patterns:

  • Women are portrayed as domestic and emotional or are sexualised

  • Men are depicted as strong, dominant and rational

  • Laura Mulvey (1975): women represented through the male gaze, as objects for visual pleasure

  • Boys are shown hypermasculine role models — athletes, superheroes and soldiers — reinforcing dominance and emotional detachment

  • Such portrayals restrict both genders:

    • Women are judged on appearance rather than ability

    • Men face pressure to conform to unrealistic standards of strength and control

  • Campaigns such as Always’ “Like a Girl” (2014) and #MeToo challenge sexist norms

Intersectionality

• Intersectionality refers to how different forms of inequality, such as gender, class, ethnicity and sexuality, overlap and combine to create unique experiences of disadvantage or privilege

  • Discrimination cannot be understood by looking at one factor alone

• Owen Jones (2011) highlights how class and gender combine in media stereotypes

  • Working-class women portrayed as “lazy” or “uneducated”, reinforcing both sexism and class prejudice

• Life chances consequence:

  • Media representation shapes confidence, career aspirations, and public attitudes towards both genders

Crime and victimisation

• Men commit and are victims of most violent crime, often linked to norms of toughness and dominance

• Women are more likely to experience domestic and sexual violence, reflecting patriarchal power

• Feminist criminologists argue that female victimisation stems from male dominance and social structures that tolerate or excuse abuse

• The justice system has historically treated female victims less seriously, though awareness and protection laws have improved

• Life chances consequence:

  • Crime reinforces gender inequality — through victimisation for women and social pressure for men

Sociological perspectives on gender inequality & life chances

Feminism

• Sees gender inequality as structural and institutionalised — built into society through patriarchy

• Walby identifies six interrelated patriarchal structures (family, paid work, the state, sexuality, culture, and violence)

• This approach advocates social change through legislation, education, and challenging gendered norms

New Right

• Views gender roles as biological and functional, maintaining social stability

• Believes that men are naturally suited to work and women to family life

• The New Right view has been criticised for ignoring women’s oppression and reinforcing inequality

Functionalism

• Argues that the division of labour benefits society’s efficiency

• Critics say that it justifies patriarchy and ignores the structural barriers faced by women