Primary Sources of Data: Quantitative Methods (WJEC Eduqas GCSE Sociology): Revision Note
Exam code: C200
Social surveys
Social surveys are a popular research method that involves collecting information from a large number of people
A social survey consists of a list of pre-set questions that a respondent answers
The questions are standardised, so each respondent answers an identical set of questions in the same order
How to carry out survey research
There are two main ways to carry out survey research:
Self-completion questionnaires that can be delivered and completed in three ways
By post
Email
Hand delivered
Structured or formal interviews where the interviewer reads the questions from an interview schedule, and they are answered in real-time. They can be carried out in two ways
Face to face
By telephone
Types of questions
Two types of questions may be used in questionnaires and interviews:
Closed or fixed-choice questions
The respondent must select one of several options, typically by checking a box like a 'yes' or 'no' question
Software can easily analyse and provide a statistical summary of the answers to closed questions
All possible answers must be included in the questionnaire
Closed questions allow researchers to collect quantitative data
Open-ended questions
These allow respondents to put forward their own answers to the set questions, such as 'what are your views on the current government?'
Responses to open questions tend to be varied, longer and more detailed than responses to closed questions, so they are difficult to convert into statistics
Open questions allow researchers to collect qualitative data
Questionnaires
A questionnaire is a method of data collection where a questionnaire is sent to a potential participant by post or email, and they fill it out and return it
The census is a compulsory postal questionnaire that households are required to fill out on one day every 10 years
Households are asked about every person living at the property, including their age, race, occupation and relationship status
The information gathered provides a snapshot of the population, including its size and the age of people
Central and local governments can use this data to plan for housing, education, health care, and transport services
Additionally, it makes it possible to track changes over time, like population size
The census questionnaire was able to be completed online for the first time in 2021
Evaluation of questionnaires
Advantages of questionnaires | Limitations of questionnaires |
|---|---|
Quick and efficient way of obtaining quantitative data from large samples spanning a wide geographical area. The data is likely to be representative. | Questionnaires would be unsuitable for some populations, such as the homeless, those with literacy problems or those short on time. This makes the sample unrepresentative. |
Cheaper than interviews, as an interviewer does not need to be present when respondents are completing the questionnaire. | As the researcher is not present to clarify any questions, this may lead to misunderstandings or questions being answered incorrectly. |
Respondents may be more comfortable answering personal or sensitive questions as the researcher is not present, allowing them to remain anonymous. | Respondents may give answers that present them in a positive light (social desirability bias). This means that the data collected lacks validity. |
The questions are standardised, so each respondent answers an identical set of questions. This means answers can be compared and differences between participants can be easily analysed. | The standardised questions and possible answers have been decided in advance. This is a limitation, as a respondent's answer may not fit one of the options provided, so they lack flexibility. |
Standardised questions also mean that replication is possible. Other researchers can replicate the questionnaire to check whether the findings are reliable or consistent. | Response rates are usually low, especially if the questionnaires are lengthy. Those who do not respond to the questionnaire may not be representative of the population, therefore making generalisation difficult. |
Closed questions provide quantitative data, so it is possible to statistically measure relationships between factors, such as gender and earned income. | Closed questions do not allow respondents to develop their answers, as there is no opportunity to explain why they selected a certain option. Therefore, the data lacks validity. |
Worked Example
Here is an example of a research methods question:
A recent sociological study investigated attitudes towards cohabitation using questionnaires.
Explain two advantages of using questionnaires for this research.
[4 marks]
Model Answer:
Identify an advantage of questionnaires:
Questionnaires are a quick and efficient way of collecting quantitative data from large samples
Develop the advantage in the context of the question:
This means the researcher can gather information from a wide range of ages and backgrounds, making the data on attitudes towards cohabitation more representative
Identify another advantage of questionnaires:
Questionnaires can be completed anonymously, which helps participants feel comfortable giving honest answers
Develop the advantage in the context of the question:
This increases the validity of the data, as people are more likely to express their true opinions about cohabitation without fear of judgement
2+2 marks
Interviews: structured
Interviews are carried out face-to-face or via telephone
In an interview, the interviewer asks questions, and the respondent replies
Answers must be recorded, either in writing or electronically
There are different types of interviews:
structured
Structured interviews are like questionnaires in that they usually consist of closed questions, which are standardised so that all respondents are asked the same questions in the same order
semi-structured
Another similarity between structured interviews and questionnaires is that they collect quantitative data
Due to their similarities, structured interviews and questionnaires share some advantages and disadvantages
Evaluation of structured interviews
Advantages of structured interviews | Limitations of structured interviews |
|---|---|
The questions are standardised, so each respondent answers an identical set of questions in the same order. Responses can be easily analysed to reveal any real differences in their attitudes or experiences. | Interview bias is a problem, as the interview situation may influence interviewees to give answers that they think are socially acceptable or present them in a positive light (social desirability bias). This means that the data collected lacks validity. |
Closed questions provide quantitative data, so it is possible to statistically measure the strength of a connection between factors. | Interviewer characteristics (such as age, gender, ethnicity, and appearance) may influence the respondents' answers. The interviewer effect means that the data collected lacks validity. |
Standardised questions also mean that other researchers can repeat the interview to check whether the findings are reliable and if any changes occur over time. | The standardised questions and possible answers have been decided in advance. This is a limitation, as the respondent cannot express their own views, as there is little flexibility and no opportunity to ask follow-up questions. |
Interviewers are trained so they will be able to clarify the meaning of questions and clear up any misunderstandings. | More costly than questionnaires, as an interviewer needs to be trained and be present when respondents are answering questions. |
The interviewer can ensure that all questions are fully completed, whereas this is not possible with a postal questionnaire. | Some feminists dislike structured interviews as they believe them to be based on unequal power relationships between the interviewer and interviewee. |
Cross-sectional & longitudinal studies
Researchers may employ a cross-sectional or longitudinal study in research involving questionnaires or interviews
Longitudinal studies are usually associated with quantitative data, but qualitative longitudinal research is also possible
Types of longitudinal design
There are two types of longitudinal design, according to Bryman (2016):
A panel study where a randomly selected sample is surveyed on two or more occasions
Such as the Understanding Society (opens in a new tab) survey, which aims to build a picture of how respondents' lives are changing over time
A cohort study where everyone in the cohort shares a characteristic or experience, and they are surveyed at regular intervals
Such as the 1970 British Cohort Study (opens in a new tab), which has monitored the health, education and social and economic circumstances of babies born in 1970
There have been nine data collections (or 'sweeps') of the cohort members since 1970
Evaluation of longitudinal studies
Advantages of longitudinal studies | Advantages of longitudinal studies |
Longitudinal studies allow researchers to examine social changes over time rather than capturing just one moment in time. | Longitudinal studies are relatively expensive and time-consuming due to the time scale involved. |
Researchers can also study changes in individuals' daily lives, behaviour, values and opinions. | There are problems with maintaining contact with the original sample over time as people move house or disappear for periods of time. |
Longitudinal studies can often use a smaller sample size because they focus on following a smaller group of people over time. | People may change their minds and decide to withdraw from the study (this is known as attrition), so generalisations are difficult to make as the sample size reduces. |
Examiner Tips and Tricks
Positivist sociologists prefer quantitative research methods such as large-scale surveys, as they gather facts and figures to describe society in statistical terms.
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