Etic & Emic Research in Development (DP IB Psychology): Revision Note

Here is an example of a Paper 3 source and 15-mark ERQ using culture (HL extension) in the Human Development context:

Source 5

In the early days of psychology, research was carried out in Western countries and so took a Western, individualistic view.  It was assumed that research could reveal universal truths that could be equally applied to all people. 

This can be seen in the representation of research articles cited in academic texts; e.g., USA and European research is typically cited in 80% of Psychology textbooks (Smith et al., 1998). A major Spanish textbook takes 74% of its studies from the USA (Rodriguez and Seoane, 1989).

Assuming universal truths about behaviour, without considering cultural variations, is known as etic research. Studying a culture from within that culture, using the measures, methods and concepts familiar to that culture, is known as emic research.

Etic research highlights cultural universals.

Emic research highlights cultural diversity.

An example of using an imposed etic in research can be found in Ainsworth's Strange Situation (1970):

• The assumption is that autonomy and independence are associated with secure attachment, which aligns well with an individualist, not so much with a collectivist, assumption

• In Germany, higher levels of independence and detachment from the caregiver may be associated with healthy attachment, not with an avoidant style

• In Japan, higher levels of infant-mother contact are associated with healthy attachment, not with a resistant style

• If people both shape and are shaped by culture, then there must be significant differences between the various cultural groups that exist. 

Why take an emic approach?

• To uncover diversity in behaviour and experience, rather than universal human attributes

• To analyse behaviour according to the meaning systems of the host culture

• To study behaviours which exist inter-dependently with the meanings attached to them

• To study meanings attached to events, not just events themselves

Etic research ignores cultural diversity, assuming that humans are a kind of homogeneous mass.

Q4: To what extent can we conclude that research into human development is biased in favour of an etic approach? In your answer, use your own knowledge and at least three of sources 2–5.

[15 marks]

Model answer:

(Here are two paragraphs which could appear as part of a longer response to this question).

Early psychological research attempted to establish universal laws that govern behaviour which apply to everyone – and this etic approach has prevailed to a large extent since then. For example, Ainsworth's (1970) research into attachment styles sought to impose three categories into which a specific set of behaviours could fit. As Source 5 points out, this ignores cultural differences and imposes an etic on attachment behaviours regardless of culture (e.g., Japanese children being labelled 'insecure resistant' using Ainsworth's criteria).

Being guided by cultural relativism and taking an emic approach should result in more culturally specific attachment types being identified. However, this recommendation does not come without its drawbacks: there needs to be money available to finance research within cultures (depending on the country/institution, this may be unattainable); existing researchers need to be trained in how to be more culturally aware (some may not be willing to try or may not understand the nuances inherent in other cultures). Additionally, there have to be allowances for how attachment behaviours are measured per culture, as Ainsworth's standardised method may be unsuitable for other cultures, particularly those of a collectivist nature.

Guidance

• The command term “To what extent” requires you to express a view/judgement on the merit, validity, or success of an argument or concept, supported by relevant evidence

• Weigh up the relative merits of this claim

  • What is there in this (and other) source(s) that could be used to back up this argument?

  • Do you know of any research or examples which could be used to validate the idea that research is biased in favour of an etic approach?

• Consider the difficulties facing researchers who are not familiar with different cultures (they may be seen as patronising, they may misinterpret cultural norms, etc.).

  • What are the implications for enlightening researchers and persuading them to pursue different cultural perspectives?

  • Why might this be problematic? Use this kind of thinking/questioning to inform your response

• Make sure that your argument is informed by the sources and that it draws from the relevant topics featured in this context

• Include concepts (e.g., causality, bias) to inform your critical thinking and discussion of the source(s) as well as any real-world or anecdotal examples you are aware of