Human Development: Theory of Mind (DP IB Psychology): Revision Note

Human development: theory of mind

• Theory of Mind (ToM) is the ability to recognise that other people have their own mental states — thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and knowledge — which may differ from one’s own

• A key aspect of ToM is understanding intentionality: appreciating that people act on the basis of their own beliefs and attitudes

  • E.g., I can predict that James is going to take his dog for a walk because he is wearing his green ‘dog-walking’ coat’

• ToM is thought to be fully developed by the age of 3 or 4 years old, although some research (e.g., Baron-Cohen) suggests that infants as young as 7–9 months show early intentionality

• Research has shown that ToM has a biological basis – a theory of mind module (ToMM), which matures in the brain at around 4 years of age

Research support for theory of mind

False belief tasks

• A ‘false belief’ task is one way to test ToM, particularly in 3-4 year olds

  • These tasks were developed to test whether children can understand that others can believe something that is not true

  • To pass a false belief task, the child must recognise that another person does not share their knowledge

• A classic false belief task is the ‘Smarties’ test: 

  • Present the box

    • Show the child a Smarties box and ask, “What do you think is inside?”
      – The child typically answers: “Smarties”

  • Reveal the unexpected content

    • Open the box to show that it actually contains pencils

  • Ask the False Belief Question

    • Ask the child, “What will your friend think is inside the box?” (The friend hasn't seen inside)

  • Evaluate the response

    • If the child says “Smarties”, they pass – showing they understand that others can hold false beliefs

    • If the child says “pencils”, they fail – assuming others know what they know, indicating egocentric thinking

• The Sally-Anne task (Baron-Cohen et al., 1985) is another false belief task assessing ToM:

  • Introduce the dolls

    • Show the child two dolls: Sally (with a basket) and Anne (with a box)

  • Set up the scenario

    • Sally places a marble in her basket and then leaves the room

  • Create the false belief

    • While Sally is gone, Anne moves the marble from the basket to her own box

  • Ask the key question

    • Ask the child, “When Sally returns, where will she look for her marble?”

  • Evaluate the response

    • If the child says “basket”, they pass – understanding Sally has a false belief

    • If the child says “box”, they fail – assuming Sally knows what they know, showing egocentric thinking

• The Sally-Anne task has been used to explore links between ToM deficits and autistic spectrum disorder (ASD) to offer some insight as to why children with ASD have difficulty understanding others' perspectives

Evaluation of theory of mind

Strengths

• ToM research has had practical applications, as it has informed anti-bullying strategies

  • Bullies often exploit ToM skills to manipulate others, so interventions can use this insight positively

• ToM research has improved understanding of ASD and led to training programmes that enhance children’s social skills.

Limitations

• False belief tasks may lack validity, as they require memory and language skills, so a child might fail despite having ToM

  • Pretend play (which requires ToM) shows some children understand others’ perspectives even if they fail the task

• There is no formal consensus among researchers over how ToM develops

  • It may develop synchronously with cognitive abilities (Piaget)

  • It may be internalised during interactions with adults (Vygotsky)

    • This means that ToM is difficult to test

Link to concepts

Bias

• Much ToM research is culture-biased, based mainly on Western, individualistic samples

• In collectivist cultures, enculturation may encourage group-orientated thinking rather than individual perspective-taking

• More research on ToM should be conducted within collectivist cultures to ensure cultural relativism

Causality

• With ASD, it is unclear whether ToM deficits are a cause or a consequence:

  • Children with ASD may avoid social interaction, giving them fewer opportunities to practise ToM skills

  • Alternatively, a lack of ToM may underpin their social difficulties

• The direction of causality remains unresolved