Human Development: Vygotsky's Theory (DP IB Psychology): Revision Note

Human development: Vygotsky’s theory

• Vygotsky argued that social interaction is central to cognitive development. Unlike Piaget, he did not believe children learn in isolation

• He placed development within a social and cultural context, seeing children as little apprentices who need guidance from others

Zone of proximal development (ZPD)

• Represents the gap between what a child can do independently and what they can achieve with help

• With the guidance of a more knowledgeable other (MKO), e.g., parent, teacher, older peer, the child can cross 'ones' and reach higher cognitive potential

• The ZPD is an aspirational model: what the child could achieve under the right conditions

Scaffolding

• Vygotsky compared children’s learning to a scaffolded structure: support is provided at first, then gradually removed as the child becomes more competent

• Scaffolding is the process by which an MKO gives constructive help and guidance to enable a child to practise or complete a task

• This support is individualised, tailored to the child’s needs, helping them achieve outcomes that would not be possible alone

• Scaffolding includes strategies such as:

  • maintaining the child’s interest in a task

  • simplifying complex ideas or actions

• Over time, scaffolding is reduced until the child can complete tasks independently

Research support for human development: Vygotsky’s theory

 Conner & Cross (2003)

 Aim:

• To investigate scaffolding in mother–child interactions during problem-solving tasks

Participants:

• 45 mother–child pairs

• Children were observed at ages 16, 26, 44, and 54 months

Procedure:

• Four observational sessions over three years

• Mothers were observed for:

  • types of scaffolding strategies used

  • consistency and effectiveness of these strategies

  • how much direct help was given

  • levels of child independence

Results:

• Mothers gave more support at earlier ages when children needed help

• As children grew, contingent instruction was used

• With progress, mothers provided less direct help, giving children more freedom

Conclusion:

• Scaffolding supports the child’s development of expertise and independence, consistent with Vygotsky’s theory

Evaluation of Vygotsky’s theory

Strengths

• Vygotsky’s theory has influenced modern teaching, e.g., the use of teaching assistants and personalised learning programmes that scaffold progress through the ZPD

• Vygotsky placed the child squarely within social and cultural contexts, which means that his theory has good external validity 

Limitations

• Scaffolding is difficult to operationalise and measure, as its very nature tends to be subjective, i.e., what will work for one child may not work for another, lowering reliability

• Despite recognising culture, some argue Vygotsky’s model assumes a universal approach, overlooking cultural differences in learning

  • Much scaffolding relies on language, which may not be equally relevant in all cultural settings

Link to concepts

Responsibility

• Children with undetected conditions (e.g., congenital heart disease) may develop more slowly

• If adults push them to reach ZPD targets without recognising the condition, it could have harmful effects, highlighting the need for careful, responsible application of Vygotsky’s ideas

Change

• Education has shifted toward child-centred learning, influenced by Vygotsky

• The emphasis is now on collaborative learning and the child as an active agent, supported by adults through scaffolding, rather than passive recipients of teacher-led instruction