Ethics in the Natural Sciences (DP IB Theory of Knowledge): Revision Note

Ethics in the natural sciences

• Evaluating scientific knowledge includes judging not only the evidence, but also the reasons for and methods of producing it and applying it

• We need to consider the harms, benefits and responsibilities linked to producing and applying scientific knowledge

Research ethics

• Research ethics are principles that guide how scientific studies are designed and carried out; this avoids unnecessary harm and protects:

  • human participants 

  • animals 

  • environments

• Ethical rules shape the evidence that can be collected; some experiments cannot be carried out ethically, so scientists may rely on observational studies or indirect measures, which can increase uncertainty

  • E.g. it would be unethical to deliberately expose a group of people to a suspected cancer-causing chemical to test whether it increases cancer risk, so scientists need to rely on observation and correlation

Use/misuse of scientific knowledge

• Scientific knowledge is used responsibly when claims are applied in ways that match the strength and limits of the evidence

• Misuse happens when scientific claims are exaggerated, taken out of context or treated as more certain than the evidence can show

• Misuse can also involve cherry-picking evidence to support a decision that has already been made

  • This weakens justification because counter-evidence is excluded rather than addressed

Technology and responsibility

• Scientific knowledge often enables the development of technology, so scientists share responsibility for how applications affect people and environments

• Responsibility includes anticipating foreseeable harms and designing safeguards

  • Ignoring known risks can make an application ethically irresponsible even if the underlying science is sound

  • E.g. developing a powerful pesticide based on solid lab evidence, but releasing it widely without testing effects on pollinators, can lead to bee population declines and crop losses

Risk, uncertainty and public interest

• Risk is the possibility of harm, while uncertainty means not knowing exactly what will happen, or how likely an outcome is, because the evidence is limited

• Decisions in the public interest often need to be made before certainty is possible, so judgment is needed about how much evidence is enough

• A responsible approach weighs potential benefits against potential harms while being clear about uncertainty

  • Adopting a new technology may be justified if potential benefits are large and safeguards reduce risk, even when long-term effects are not fully known

  • E.g. during a disease outbreak, a new vaccine may be approved after trials, even though very rare long-term effects remain uncertain; this is because delaying approval could cause many preventable death