Social Learning Theory Research (OCR GCSE Psychology): Revision Note

Social learning core study: Cooper & Mackie (1986)

Background

• Previous research suggested that children may imitate aggressive behaviour seen in media, supporting Social Learning Theory (SLT)

  • Most earlier studies focused on television violence, which is passively observed

• Cooper and Mackie wanted to explore whether interactive media, such as video games, would have a stronger influence on aggression

  • They also examined gender differences, as previous research showed that:

    • males tend to be more aggressive

    • males are more exposed to violent media than females

Hypothesis

• Playing an aggressive video game would lead to increased aggression in children compared to playing a non-aggressive or paper-and-pen game

Method

• Type of study: Laboratory experiment

• Design: Independent measures design

• Independent variables (IVs):

  • Type of game played (aggressive, non-aggressive, or control)

  • Gender of the participant (male or female)

• Dependent variable (DV):

  • Levels of aggression shown after playing or observing the game, measured through:

    • behavioural observation

    • questionnaires

• Sample:

  • 84 children aged 9–11 years, from schools in New Jersey, USA

  • Equal number of boys and girls

  • Parental consent was obtained

  • The children completed a pre-study questionnaireabout their video game experience

• Random allocation:

  • Children were randomly assigned to pairs (same sex and age)

  • One child was selected to play the game and the other was told to observe for a total of eight minutes

• Procedure:

  • Random allocation:

    • Children were paired by age and gender and randomly assigned to one of three conditions:

      1. Aggressive game – Missile Command

      2. Non-aggressive game – Pac-Man

      3. Control game – paper-and-pen maze (Star Wars or Tron)

  • Familiarisation:

    • Each pair had 2 minutes to learn their assigned game

    • One child played while the other observed for 8 minutes

    • Roles were counterbalanced so each child both played and observed

  • Aggression testing:

    • After playing, one child went to a playroom and the other to a test room

    • The playroom contained aggressive, active, skill, and quiet toys

    • Researchers timed how long each child played with aggressive toys (e.g. dart-firing warrior, spring-release fist toy)

    • In the test room, the child was asked how they would reward or punish another child’s behaviour

    • They pressed a buzzer to show the level of punishment or reward — measuring interpersonal aggression

  • Questionnaire:

    • Children rated how much they enjoyed each game and how aggressive they thought it was

Results

• Aggressive play:

  • Children who played or observed Missile Command (aggressive game) spent more time playing with aggressive toys than those in other conditions

• Gender differences:

  • Girls showed a greater increase in aggressive play after Missile Command than girls in other conditions

  • Boys spent more time overall with aggressive toys, but their behaviour was less affected by the game type

  • Girls unfamiliar with video games showed higher arousal and disinhibition, making them more likely to imitate aggression

• Interpersonal aggression:

  • The type of game did not affect interpersonal aggression scores

  • Children who played (rather than just observed) had higher aggression scores overall

Conclusions

• Playing or observing an aggressive video game can increase short-term aggressive behaviour, especially in children less familiar with violent video games (notably girls)

• Girls felt it was socially acceptable to play with aggressive toys because they had already been encouraged to play an aggressive video game

• Findings support social learning theory, showing that children may imitate aggressive behaviour seen in media

• The type of game and previous experience affect aggression — not all children respond the same way

Criticisms

• Sample bias and generalisability

  • The study used a small, culturally specific sample (American children aged 9–11)

  • Results may not generalise to other ages, cultures, or modern gaming experiences

• Artificial setting

  • Conducted in a lab, not a natural gaming environment so the study lacks ecological validity

  • Children knew they were being observed, which could influence how they behaved

• Limited measure of aggression

  • Aggression was measured narrowly (e.g. time spent with aggressive toys or pressing a buzzer), leading to low levels of construct validity

  • These measures may not represent real aggression toward people

• Extraneous variables and control issues

  • Researchers couldn’t control all factors, e.g. previous gaming experience, engagement level

  • Some children might have been more excited or nervous, affecting results

• Only short-term effects tested

  • The study did not measure long-term behavioural change — aggression may fade once the game ends

  • Real-world imitation might take time to develop as behaviours become reinforced and internalised