The Theory of Reconstructive Memory (OCR GCSE Psychology): Revision Note

Schemas

• Reconstructive memory suggests that our memory is influenced by prior experiences and beliefs, meaning it is not an exact copy of what actually happened

• Memory is not like a camera

  • It does not record events exactly as they happen

• Instead, it is reconstructed from fragments and influenced by prior experiences, beliefs, and expectations

• Bartlett (1932) proposed that memory is an active process, guided by internal frameworks called schemas

  • A schema is a mental representation based on previous experience

    • E.g. your idea of a 'birthday party' might include cake, presents, and balloons

• Schemas help us make sense of new information by fitting it into what we already know

  • New details are understood through existing schemas, making unfamiliar events more meaningful

  • However, this can also lead to distortions if new information doesn’t match what we expect

• Bartlett described memory as a reconstruction of past reactions or experiences, rather than a literal replay of events

  • Memory is flexible and may change depending on what is most meaningful at the time of recall

  • Recall doesn't necessarily occur in a chronological order — details are pieced together to form a coherent story

The role of experience and expectation on memory

• Our perceptions and recall are shaped by what we have experienced before

  • Prior experiences lead us to expect certain outcomes

  • When an event doesn’t match those expectations, we unconsciously alter or omit details to make it fit our schema

  • E.g. if a teacher looks strict, a student might assume they are unkind

    • Over time, new experiences update the schema once the student realises the teacher is friendly

• Bartlett argued that memories are reconstructions, often merging elements of several events to create one coherent narrative

• This explains why two people can recall the same event differently

  • Each uses their own schemas and expectations to interpret it

Confabulation & leading questions

• Confabulation occurs when people fill in gaps in memory with made-up details to make a story more complete

  • It is not lying — people genuinely believe these details are correct

• Bartlett proposed that confabulation happens because we use parts of other memories or schemas to make a fragmented memory seem whole

  • This helps to create a more consistent reconstruction of events, even if it is inaccurate

Distortion and the effect of leading questions

• Memory distortion occurs when the recall of an event differs from what actually happened

• Leading questions can manipulate memory by suggesting false details

  • E.g. Loftus & Palmer (1974) found that participants who were asked, “How fast were the cars going when they smashed?” estimated higher speeds than those who were asked, “How fast were the cars going when they contacted?”

    • The verb used altered participants’ reconstructed memories of the crash

• This shows that post-event information and language can shape how we remember events

Criticisms of the theory of reconstructive memory

• Reductionist

  • The theory focuses on schemas and reconstruction but ignores biological processes, such as how memories are stored and retrieved in the brain

  • A more holistic approach would recognise that memory relies on multiple interconnected systems, not just schemas

• Lack of systematic research

  • Bartlett’s own studies (e.g. War of the Ghosts) lacked standardised instructions and controls, so that extraneous variables may have affected results

  • Therefore, the research doesn't offer valid support for the theory

• Schemas are unobservable

  • Critics argue the concept is too vague and hypothetical

  • Schemas cannot be directly measured or seen on brain scans, making them difficult to study scientifically

• Overly complicated

  • The reconstructive model makes it hard to predict exactly what people will remember, as each person’s schemas and experiences are unique

  • This makes memory very difficult to test