Observations (OCR GCSE Psychology): Revision Note

What is an observation?

• An observation is a non-experimental research method in which a psychologist watches and records behaviour as it happens

  • Observations allow researchers to study real behaviour, rather than relying on self-reports, such as questionnaires and interviews

• Observers can only record what they see — for example, a child hitting a doll — but they cannot infer feelings, motives, or intentions (e.g. assuming the child is angry)

• Some observations may involve manipulation of an IV (e.g. Bandura’s 1961 Bobo Doll study), while others are purely naturalistic

Naturalistic & controlled observations

Naturalistic observation

• Conducted in a real-life setting with no manipulation of variables

• Behaviour is observed as it naturally occurs, often without participants knowing they are being watched, e.g.

  • children observed in a school playground

  • shoppers observed in a supermarket

  • spectators observed at a sporting event

Controlled observation

• Takes place in an artificial environment (often a lab), where variables are carefully controlled

• Participants know they are taking part in a study and complete specific, often artificial, tasks, e.g.

  • Zimbardo (1973): Prison simulation study (controlled roles of prisoners and guards)

  • Bandura (1961): Bobo doll experiment observing imitation of aggression

Covert & overt observations

Covert observation

• Participants are aware that they are being observed

• Often used in controlled settings, where consent is obtained

  • E.g. the participants in Zimbardo’s prison study were aware that they were being observed by the researcher and that cameras were filming them

Overt observation

• Participants are unaware they are being observed

• Participants cannot see the researcher observing them

• Used only in public settings where behaviour would happen naturally

  • E.g. in Piliavin's subway study on bystander behaviour, the participants weren't aware they were being observed

Participant & non-participant observations

Participant observation

• The researcher joins the group they are observing and may interact with participants

• They are often covert, so participants are unaware the researcher is observing them, e.g.

  • Rosenhan (1973): Researchers admitted to psychiatric hospitals to observe patient care

  • Piliavin et al. (1969): Researchers blended in with passengers on the New York subway

Non-participant observation

• The researcher remains separate and does not interact with participants

• Non-participant observations can be overt or covert, e.g.

  • Bandura (1961): Observers watched children’s aggression through a one-way mirror

  • Ainsworth (1970): Observed mother–child attachment in a lab setting

Evaluation of observations

Strengths

• Naturalistic and covert observations are high in validity, as real, unforced behaviour is measured

• Controlled observations have high control over variables, increasing reliability

• Overt observations are ethically sound, as participants give informed consent

• Participant observations provides insight and depth, as the researcher experiences the situation first-hand

• In non-participant observations, the researcher stays objective, reducing bias

• Observations which use multiple observers can be checked for inter-observer reliability

Weaknesses

• The lack of control over extraneous variables in naturalistic observations can affect validity

• The artificial setting in a controlled observation can reduce ecological validity

• There are ethical concerns with covert observations, as participants are unaware of being observed

• In overt observations participants may change their behaviour because they know they’re being observed, causing demand characteristics

• In participant observations, the researcher may lose objectivity or influence behaviour

• In non-participant observations, the researcher may miss subtle details or lack a full understanding of participant behaviour

• The researcher may bring their own bias to the research process, i.e. they may observe what fits their expectations rather than what is happening