1. Cell Structure

The Microscope in Cell Studies

The Microscope in Cell Studies

Magnification Calculations

Eyepiece Graticules & Stage Micrometers

Resolution & Magnification

Calculating Actual Size

Cells as the Basic Units of Living Organisms

Eukaryotic Cell Structures & Functions

Animal & Plant Cells

The Vital Role of ATP

Prokaryotic v Eukaryotic Cells

Viruses

2. Biological Molecules

Testing for Biological Molecules

Biological Molecule Tests

The Benedict's Test

Testing for Non-Reducing Sugars

Carbohydrates & Lipids

Biological Molecules: Key Terms

Covalent Bonds in Polymers

Reducing & Non-Reducing Sugars

The Glycosidic Bond

Starch & Glycogen

Cellulose

Triglycerides

Phospholipids

Proteins

Amino Acids & the Peptide Bond

The Four Levels of Protein Structure

Protein Shape

Globular & Fibrous Proteins

Haemoglobin

Collagen

Water

Water & the Hydrogen Bond

The Role of Water in Living Organisms

3. Enzymes

Mode of Action of Enzymes

Enzymes

Enzyme Action

How Enzymes Work

Measuring Enzyme Activity

Colorimetry

Factors that Affect Enzyme Action

Rate: Temperature

Rate: pH

Rate: Enzyme Concentration

Rate: Substrate Concentration

Rate: Inhibitor Concentration

Vmax & the Michaelis-Menten Constant

Enzyme Inhibitors

Enzyme Activity: Immobilised v Free

4. Cell Membranes & Transport

Fluid Mosaic Membranes

The Fluid Mosaic Model

Components of Cell Surface Membranes

The Cell Surface Membrane

Cell Signalling

Movement into & out of Cells

Diffusion

Osmosis

Active Transport

Endocytosis & Exocytosis

Investigating Transport Processes in Plants

Investigating Diffusion

Surface Area to Volume Ratios

Investigating Surface Area

Estimating Water Potential in Plants

Osmosis in Plant Cells

Osmosis in Animals

Comparing Osmosis in Plants & Animals

5. The Mitotic Cell Cycle

Replication & Division of Nuclei & Cells

Chromosome Structure

Mitosis

The Cell Cycle

The Role of Telomeres

The Role of Stem Cells

How Tumours Form

Chromosome Behaviour in Mitosis

The Stages of Mitosis

Observing Mitosis

6. Nucleic Acids & Protein Synthesis

Structure of Nucleic Acids & Replication of DNA

Nucleotides

The Structure of DNA

Semi-Conservative DNA Replication

The Structure of RNA

Protein Synthesis

From Gene to Polypeptide

The Universal Genetic Code

Constructing Polypeptides

Transcription

Gene Mutations

7. Transport in Plants

Structure of Transport Tissues

Plant Transverse Sections

Xylem & Phloem Distribution

Xylem Vessels Elements

Phloem Sieve Tube Elements

Transport Mechanisms

Water & Mineral Ion Transport in Plants

Transpiration in Plants

Water & the Transpiration Pull

Xerophytic Plant Leaf Adaptations

Movement in the Phloem

The Sucrose Loading Mechanism

Phloem: Mass Flow

8. Transport in Mammals

The Circulatory System

Circulatory Systems

The Main Blood Vessels

Observing & Drawing Blood Vessels

Blood Vessels: Structures & Functions

Cells of the Blood

The Role of Water in Circulation

Blood & Tissue Fluid

Transport of Oxygen & Carbon Dioxide

Red Blood Cells, Haemoglobin & Oxygen

The Chloride Shift

Plasma & Carbon Dioxide

The Oxygen Dissociation Curve

The Bohr Shift

The Heart

Structure of the Heart

The Walls of the Heart

The Cardiac Cycle

Heart Action

9. Gas Exchange

The Gas Exchange System

The Human Gas Exchange System

Distribution of Tissues

Recognising Tissues

Recognising Structures

Structures & Functions of the Gas Exchange System

Gas Exchange Processes

10. Infectious Diseases

Infectious Diseases

Infectious Diseases

Transmission of Disease

Prevention & Control of Disease

Antibiotics

Penicillin

Antibiotic Resistance

Consequences of Antibiotic Resistance

11. Immunity

The Immune System

Phagocytes

Antigens

Primary Immune Response

Memory Cells & Immunity

Antibodies & Vaccination

Antibodies

Making Monoclonal Antibodies

Uses of Monoclonal Antibodies

Types of Immunity

How Vaccines Work

Vaccination to Control Disease

12. Energy & Respiration

Energy

Energy

ATP

Energy Values of Respiratory Substrates

Respiratory Quotient (RQ)

Investigating RQs

Respiration

Structure & Function of Mitochondria

The Four Stages in Aerobic Respiration

Aerobic Respiration: Glycolysis

Aerobic Respiration: The Link Reaction

Aerobic Respiration: The Krebs Cycle

Aerobic Respiration: Role of NAD & FAD

Aerobic Respiration: Oxidative Phosphorylation

Anaerobic Respiration

Energy Yield: Aerobic & Anaerobic Respiration

Anaerobic Adaptation of Rice

Aerobic Respiration: Effect of Temperature & Substrate Concentration

13. Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis as an Energy Transfer Process

Chloroplasts

Stages of Photosynthesis

Thylakoids & the Stroma

Chloroplast Pigments

Absorption Spectra & Action Spectra

Chromatography of Chloroplast Pigments

Photophosphorylation

The Calvin Cycle

Investigation of Limiting Factors

Limiting Factors of Photosynthesis

Investigating the Rate of Photosynthesis

14. Homeostasis

Homeostasis in Mammals

Homeostasis

Production of Urea

Kidney Structure

Nephron Structure

Formation of Urine

Osmoregulation

The Control of Blood Glucose

Test Strips & Biosensors

Homeostasis in Plants

Stomata

Guard Cells

Abscisic Acid & Stomatal Closure

15. Control & Coordination

Control & Coordination in Mammals

The Endocrine System

The Nervous System

Neurones

Sensory Receptor Cells

Sequence of Events Resulting in an Action Potential

Transmission of Nerve Impulses

Speed of Conduction of Impulses

The Refractory Period

Cholinergic Synapses

Stimulating Contraction in Striated Muscle

Ultrastructure of Striated Muscle

Sliding Filament Model of Muscular Contraction

Control & Coordination in Plants

Electrical Communication in the Venus Flytrap

The Role of Auxin in Elongation Growth

The Role of Gibberellin in Germination of Barley

16. Inheritance

Passage of Information from Parents to Offspring

Haploidy & Diploidy

Homologous Chromosomes

Meiosis in Animal & Plant Cells

Identifying the Stages of Meiosis

Meiosis: Sources of Genetic Variation

The Roles of Genes in Determining the Phenotype

Key Terms in Genetics

Predicting Inheritance: Monohybrid Crosses

Predicting Inheritance: Dihybrid Crosses

Predicting Inheritance: Test Crosses

Predicting Inheritance: Chi-squared Test

Genes, Proteins & Phenotype

The Role of Gibberellin in Stem Elongation

Gene Control

Gene Control

Gene Control: Lac Operon

Gene Control: Transcription Factors

17. Selection & Evolution

Variation

Variation: Phenotype

Variation: Discontinuous & Continuous

Variation: t-test Method

Variation: t-test Worked Example

Natural & Artificial Selection

Natural Selection

Natural Selection: Types of Selection

Natural Selection: Changes in Allele Frequencies

Natural Selection: Antibiotic Resistance

Natural Selection: Hardy-Weinberg Principle

Artificial Selection

Examples of Artificial Selection

Evolution

Theory of Evolution

Allopatric & Sympatric Speciation

18. Classification, Biodiversity & Conservation

Classification

Definitions of Species

The Three Domains: Archaea, Bacteria & Eukarya

Eukarya

Kingdoms

Viruses (AL)

Biodiversity

Ecosystems & Niches

Biodiversity

Random Sampling

Testing for Distribution & Abundance

Pearson's Linear Correlation

Spearman's Rank Correlation

Simpson's Index

Conservation

Reasons for Extinction

Reasons for Maintaining Biodiversity

Methods of Conservation

Assisted Reproduction

Controlling Invasive Species

Role of IUCN in Conservation

19. Genetic Technology

Principles of Genetic Technology

Recombinant DNA

Genetic Engineering

Isolating the Desired Gene

Genetic Engineering: Enzymes

Genetic Engineering: Vectors

Genetic Engineering: Promoters & Marker Genes

Gene Editing

Polymerase Chain Reaction

Gel Electrophoresis

Microarrays

Bioinformatics

Genetic Technology Applied to Medicine

Recombinant Human Proteins

Genetic Screening

Gene Therapy

Gene Technology in Medicine

Genetically Modified Organisms in Agriculture

Genetically Modified Organisms in Agriculture

Using GMOs in Agriculture

Exam boards

• Edexcel A Level Biology (A) SNAB
• OCR A Level Biology
• AQA A Level Biology

Study tools

• Cambridge (CIE) A Level Biology · Exam Questions
• Cambridge (CIE) A Level Biology · Past Papers

Related links

• A Level Biology · Revision Notes
• A Level Biology · Exam Questions
• A Level Biology · Past Papers