Sociological Methods & Research Design (AQA A Level Sociology): Flashcards

Secondary data might not suit a sociologist's research because it was collected by someone else, so it may not fit the research needs exactly; it can also be biased or incomplete.

Quantitative data tends to have high reliability because the methods can be replicated.

Qualitative data is favoured by interpretivist sociologists.

Standardised, large-scale methods, such as questionnaires, produce quantitative data.

False.

Qualitative data is harder to analyse and generalise; quantitative data is easier to compare and generalise.

One limitation of quantitative data is that it lacks depth and context, so it may miss the meanings behind actions.

A researcher might choose a topic because it has a practical use, such as improving education, or because it is fundable; enhancing their reputation is another reason.

Cost influences the choice of research method because some methods, such as unstructured interviews, are expensive, while others, such as analysing official statistics, are cheaper.

The choice of research topic may be influenced by government policy priorities.

Informed consent means participants know they are being studied and agree voluntarily to take part.

True.

Questionnaires are quicker to carry out, so they suit research with little time available.

A sensitive topic may need a more private or informal method.

The British Sociological Association (BSA) provides ethical guidelines for sociologists.

Funding bodies often prefer easily quantifiable data, such as statistics from large-scale surveys.

A researcher's characteristics can affect the choice of method because their age, gender, ethnicity and social background may affect how participants respond; e.g. working-class people may be less open with a middle-class academic.

False.

Confidentiality means keeping participants' identities private and protecting sensitive information to ensure anonymity.

Personal skills influence the choice of method because some methods, such as interviews, require good communication skills, and not every researcher suits every method.

Researchers must ensure participants are not harmed emotionally, physically or psychologically, e.g. by avoiding stressful questions or situations.

Two vulnerable groups are children and people with learning difficulties; people with mental health conditions are another.

When researching children, researchers need consent from parents or guardians.

Covert research is research that studies people without their knowledge, which raises issues of consent and deception.

Covert research may be justified when access is otherwise impossible, e.g. when studying criminal groups.

A sociologist's theoretical perspective influences their choice of research methods and the type of data they prefer to collect.

Social facts are the patterns, structures and institutions that positivists believe exist independently of individuals and can be measured scientifically.

Interpretivists view social facts as socially constructed.

Positivists aim to uncover cause-and-effect relationships within social behaviour.

False.

Positivists focus on behaviour that can be observed and measured, rather than on feelings or emotions.

Positivists see people's behaviour as shaped by external social forces (social facts), largely outside individuals' control.

Interpretivists aim to understand social actors' meanings, motivations and lived experiences.

Positivists prefer quantitative data, from methods such as structured interviews, questionnaires and official statistics.

True.

These methods produce rich, detailed accounts rather than statistics.

Positivists favour these methods because they produce reliable data that describes society in statistical terms.

Interpretivists favour qualitative methods because they produce data that is high in validity.

The main criticism of positivism is that scientific methods are unsuitable for studying society because humans differ fundamentally from the subjects of the natural sciences.

One criticism of interpretivism is that it is difficult to achieve objectivity, as the researcher's beliefs and interpretations can affect the outcomes.

A mixed methods approach is one where the sociologist collects both quantitative and qualitative data.

Triangulation is cross-checking findings by using more than one method, e.g. checking qualitative results against quantitative ones.

A mixed methods approach can create a complete picture of the research topic; it also uses the strengths of both types of data.

Validity is whether a method gives a true and meaningful picture of what is being studied.

Participant observation and other qualitative methods often have higher validity because they offer deeper, more truthful insights into participants' experiences.

Reliability is the replicability of research and the consistency of its findings: a reliable method produces the same results when other researchers repeat it.

False.

Structured questionnaires are generally more reliable, because fixed questions yield similar data across researchers.

Representativeness is whether the sample used in research reflects the wider population being studied.

Quantitative methods may lack validity because they can overlook the context behind behaviours and responses.

Researchers rely on samples because it is usually impractical to study everyone of interest.

Generalisability is whether research findings can be applied to the wider population beyond the sample.

The larger the sample, the more generalisable the findings are, provided it is representative.

The sociologist could select teachers whose characteristics mirror those of the broader teaching population.

Objectivity is keeping personal beliefs, opinions or biases out of the research process.

Objectivity is closely linked to value freedom.

A researcher can use random sampling to reduce selection bias.

False.

Researchers should avoid emotional attachments, so their values do not influence data collection or interpretation.

Researchers should ask neutral and standardised questions so that they do not lead participants.

Sociologists follow stages in research design to make sure their research is well-planned, ethical and effective.

A hypothesis is a clear, testable prediction about the relationship between two variables.

If the findings do not support the hypothesis, sociologists must modify it or reject it.

Positivists prefer a hypothesis because they aim to identify and explain cause-and-effect relationships in social behaviour.

False.

Interpretivists prefer broad aims, focusing on understanding the meanings individuals give to their actions.

The choice of method is shaped by theoretical perspective, the type of data required, practical factors and ethical considerations.

The research population is the larger group that the sociologist is interested in studying, e.g. all UK secondary pupils studying for GCSEs.

Operationalisation is turning abstract concepts into something measurable, so that a hypothesis can be tested using data.

A sociologist could operationalise social class by asking about a student's parental occupation.

A sample is the smaller sub-group selected from the research population to take part in the study.

A sociologist selects their sample from a sampling frame.

A pilot study is a small-scale test run of the main research project, carried out on a very small sample to iron out problems.

A pilot study can check whether questions are clear and understandable, whether the method works in practice and whether ethical issues arise.

False.

The sociologist must collect, record and store the data in a systematic and ethical way.

A research report includes the aims, hypothesis, method and sample, an analysis of the findings and an evaluation of the research process.

Reflexivity is when a researcher considers how their personal views and potential bias may have influenced their interaction with participants; interpretivists commonly use it.

A sample is a smaller group chosen to represent the wider population.

It is usually impossible because of practical constraints, such as time, cost and access.

A sampling frame is a full list of all members of the population the sociologist wants to study, e.g. school registers or the voters' roll.

Random sampling gives each member of the sampling frame an equal chance of being selected.

False.

A sample drawn from a flawed sampling frame will not be representative, so generalising the results is difficult.

Systematic random sampling is taking every nth participant from the sampling frame, from a starting point chosen at random.

Stratified random sampling divides the population into strata, such as age and gender groups, then draws randomly from each in proportion to its size.

False.

Random sampling methods are more time-consuming, as a sampling frame may be difficult to obtain.

Random sampling may fail to produce a fully representative sample because selected participants may refuse to take part.

Non-random sampling methods are often used when no sampling frame is available, e.g. for homeless people.

Snowball sampling is when the researcher gains the trust of one member of a group, who then refers them to others in the group.

Quota sampling requires researchers to interview an exact number of people from certain categories in proportion to their numbers in the population.

Opportunity sampling selects participants who are most easily available at the time of the study.

Non-random methods are said to be biased because the researcher controls who is selected; e.g. they may avoid people they do not like the look of.

False.

A representative sample is unlikely with non-random methods, so findings cannot easily be generalised.

One strength of non-random sampling is that it is convenient, saving time and effort; it may also be the only way to obtain a sample.