Secularisation (AQA A Level Sociology): Flashcards

Voas and Crockett argue there is evidence of a generational decline in belief.

Sanderson argues people are increasingly turning to secular ceremonies, such as naming ceremonies and humanist funerals.

Disenchantment is Weber's idea that the world is no longer explained through magic or the supernatural, but through science and technology.

Weber claims the Protestant Reformation began the process of rationalisation.

False.

Bruce argues that science does not disprove religion, but it reduces the scope for religious explanations, so people take religion less seriously.

Structural differentiation is Parsons' (1951) idea that industrial society develops specialised institutions, such as education, welfare and law, which take over religion's former roles.

Disengagement means the church no longer performs key functions, such as socialisation and social solidarity.

Bruce argues religion has moved into the private sphere of the home and family, becoming a matter of personal choice.

Berger (1969) argues that religious diversity means society is no longer unified under a single sacred canopy.

Day argues that many people claim to be Christian because they see Christianity as part of their national or cultural identity, e.g. being 'British'.

Vicarious religion is Davie's idea that an active minority, such as clergy and regular attenders, worships on behalf of the wider community.

Davie argues that attendance statistics are misleading because they do not capture personal beliefs, so they lack validity as a measure of religiosity.

The difference is that religion online is established organisations using websites and social media to spread their message, whereas online religion is individuals creating virtual faith communities.

False.

Helland's work challenges Bruce, as online communities keep religion alive.

Hervieu-Léger identifies pilgrims, who seek self-discovery through New Age spirituality, and converts, who join groups that provide belonging and identity.

Cultural transition is where religion helps migrants adjust to a new culture, e.g. South Asian communities in the UK.

Berger (1999) revised his earlier view, arguing that diversity can stimulate religious vitality.

Internal secularisation is Herberg's (1960) term for religions diluting or modifying core beliefs to keep their connection to wider society, e.g. the Church of England allowing women bishops.

Watering down core beliefs might lead to declining commitment because it risks religions losing their distinctiveness and spiritual authority, as they no longer offer something unique compared to secular values.

Wilson saw religion in the US as superficial because churchgoing there was more about the 'American way of life' than genuine faith.

Hadaway et al. found that actual attendance was much lower than people reported in surveys.

True.

Because churchgoing is socially desirable, many non-attenders still claim to attend, which undermines the validity of self-reported attendance data.

Bruce means US religion now focuses on personal improvement rather than salvation and glorifying God.

Civil religion is Bellah's (1991) idea of a shared belief system in which loyalty to God and to America are treated as the same thing.

Bruce argues that religion in America has become a commodity, as churches market themselves to attract 'consumers'.

Practical relativism is the acceptance that other people's beliefs are equally valid.

Stark and Bainbridge call secularisation theory Eurocentric because it focuses on religion's decline in Europe and ignores its vitality in America and elsewhere.

Religious market theory assumes that people are naturally religious and that all humans seek rewards and avoid costs.

Supernatural compensators are religious promises that make up for real rewards that are scarce or unattainable, e.g. life after death.

Stark and Bainbridge argue that religion moves through a cycle of decline, revival and renewal.

Religion thrives in the US because competition between denominations forces churches to adapt and meet people's needs.

Hadden and Shupe argue that the rise of televangelism shows religion in the US is supply-led.

False.

Bruce rejects this, arguing that in both Europe and America, diversity has often coincided with religious decline.

Existential security theory argues that religion meets a need for security, so demand for religion depends on how secure people feel in their lives.

Norris and Inglehart argue Americans are more religious because the US lacks a strong welfare state and universal healthcare, so poorer Americans feel less secure.

Gill and Lundegaarde found that the more a country spends on welfare, the lower its level of religious participation.

Vasquez criticises Norris and Inglehart's data because they rely only on quantitative data about income, so their data lacks validity; qualitative research is needed to capture people's own definitions of security.

Fundamentalists believe in the literal truth of sacred texts, which they see as unquestionable.

Hawley claims that many fundamentalist groups are patriarchal, reinforcing traditional gender roles.

False.

Despite rejecting modernity, many fundamentalists use modern technology and media to spread their message and recruit followers.

Bruce argues that fundamentalism is most likely in monotheistic faiths because belief in one God supports the idea of one single truth and one clear set of rules.

Giddens claims globalisation has increased fundamentalism by undermining traditional norms about the nuclear family, gender and sexuality.

Bauman (1992) sees fundamentalism as a reaction to postmodernity, which creates insecurity and chaos.

The difference is that, for Castells (2010), resistance identity is a defensive retreat into fundamentalist communities, whereas project identity is engagement in forward-looking movements such as feminism.

Beckford argues that Giddens ignores how globalisation can also strengthen mainstream religions, such as Catholicism.

Bruce's two types are Western (Christian) fundamentalism, found in secular societies, and non-Western (Islamic) fundamentalism, which arises in developing countries facing Western influences.

The New Christian Right tries to reassert religion in public life in the USA.

Cultural defence is where religion acts as a unifying force against external threats, e.g. Poland's Catholic Church resisting communist control in the 1980s.

Secular fundamentalism is where secular movements take a fundamentalist form, e.g. French laws banning conspicuous religious symbols in state schools.

Cultural amnesia is Hervieu-Léger's (2000) term for late modern societies that have forgotten their religious traditions.

Huntington predicts the strongest clashes will be between the West and Islam.

True.

Jackson argues that Huntington stereotypes Eastern nations, especially Muslims, as irrational and a threat, justifying Western dominance.

Armstrong argues that hostility towards the West comes not from Islam itself but from Western foreign policy in the Middle East.

Nanda (2009) argues that most of India's growing middle class remain religious, which contradicts the prediction that modernisation undermines religion.

False.

Nanda rejects explanations based on poverty or insecurity, as this group is relatively wealthy.

Nanda argues that rising religiosity stems from ambivalence about newfound wealth, as traditional Hindu values emphasise renouncing materialism.

Tele-gurus resolve the tension by promoting prosperity as a spiritual goal.

Hindu ultra-nationalism, reinforced by the media and politicians, uses religion to unite the nation and encourage economic development.

Nanda argues that Hinduism functions like a form of civil religion in India.

Berger (2003) sees Pentecostalism as a modern Protestant ethic because it promotes an ascetic lifestyle of discipline, hard work and abstinence, which encourages upward mobility.

False.

Lehmann (2002) argues Pentecostalism adapts rather than replaces existing beliefs, e.g. blending with local beliefs in spirits and healing in Africa.

Berger argues that Pentecostalism has a strong affinity with modern capitalism.

Pentecostalism has succeeded in developing countries because it appeals to the poor, who make up most of the population, and uses global media.

The four East Asian Tiger economies are South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore and Hong Kong.

Redding argues that post-Confucian values, such as hard work, self-discipline and frugality, supported East Asian development, much like Weber's Protestant ethic.