Antony and Cleopatra: Understanding the Text (Cambridge (CIE) IGCSE English Literature): Revision Note
Exam code: 0475 & 0992
All IGCSE Literature in English questions expect you to give an informed personal response. This means it is not enough simply to know the play well. You must also understand its themes, main ideas, settings, situations, and events, and be able to explain why particular moments or scenes matter within the whole text. You should also recognise that the play is a piece of drama, written to be performed, and show an appreciation of how it might work on stage.
Developing all of these skills will help you form a sustained, critical understanding of the play and give you a chance to show individuality and insight in your answers.
To get a full view and a wider understanding of the text, and to give deeper answers about the context it was written and performed in, it is useful to explore:
Historical context
Social context
Literary context
Examiner Tips and Tricks
Examiners also want to see that you understand the historical and social context of the play. This means showing awareness of when and where it is set, and what life was like at that time. Context helps explain why characters behave the way they do and why certain themes are important.
You do not need to give lots of background information, but you should link context directly to the story or a character’s actions. For example, instead of just stating a fact about the time period, explain how it shapes attitudes, choices, or conflict in the play. This shows the examiner that you can use context to deepen your analysis, not just describe it.
Historical context
Antony and Cleopatra was written in around 1607, continuing the story of the civil war in Rome that Shakespeare had first explored in another of his historical tragedies, Julius Caesar. Antony and Cleopatra follows the events of that story, and is based around the power struggles that were left in the wake of Julius Caesar’s assassination, picking up the story of the victorious triumvirate of Antony, Lepidus and Octavius Caesar.
Succession of power was a big topic in Elizabethan England, and that continued into Jacobean England as James I took the throne after Elizabeth I died in 1603 without naming an heir. Succession of power is a continuing theme throughout Antony and Cleopatra.
Monarchy and succession
Antony and Cleopatra was written as the reign of Queen Elizabeth I ended, and James I took the throne. Although the Tudor dynasty had ended, many of the political tensions that shaped Elizabeth’s final years were still present and fresh:
Elizabeth’s court had been marked by political deception, factional rivalry, and the constant negotiation of power
Her refusal to name an heir caused tension around her succession, creating decades of anxiety around national fragmentation and civil war
In comparison, Rome in the period between 40 and 30 BCE was shaped by the collapse of the Roman Republic and the struggle for power that followed Julius Caesar’s assassination
After the death of Julius Caesar in 44 BCE, Rome entered a period of political instability and civil war:
Three of the most powerful figures in Rome - Mark Antony, Octavius (Caesar’s adopted son), and Lepidus - formed the Second Triumvirate in 43 BCE, a political alliance intended to stabilise the state
Although presented as a unified leadership, the Triumvirate was marked by rivalry and shifting loyalties, with each man controlling his own armies, territories, and supporters
The republic’s traditional political structures, such as the senate and the system of elected consuls, continued to exist but held little real authority during this period
How this links to Antony and Cleopatra | |
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Monarchy | The contrast between Roman and Egyptian models of monarchy is central to the play. Cleopatra embodies hereditary kingship, emphasising spectacle, lineage, and divine association. Rome had rejected kingship and monarchy, yet increasingly behaved like one, with Octavius consolidating control and presenting himself as the sole guardian of order. These competing forms of power highlight cultural tensions within the Mediterranean world: where Egypt embraced individual rule, Rome resisted the title of “king” even as it moved towards imperial leadership. |
Succession | The recent transition from Elizabeth I to James I highlighted the fragility of authority, the influence of ambitious nobles, and the need for strong, centralised leadership. These tensions may have encouraged Shakespeare to emphasise the instability of change, with unstable alliances, rivalries between powerful figures, and the dangers of divided loyalty within Rome. His depiction of Antony, Octavius, and their competing claims to legitimacy reflects early Jacobean concerns about succession, political authority, and the struggle to maintain unity during periods of change. |
Empire and international expansion
Shakespeare wrote Antony and Cleopatra at a time when England was beginning to imagine itself as an emerging imperial power. The foundations of expansion had recently been laid:
Trading companies, such as the East India Company, had been established
England’s first permanent colony in North America was founded in 1607
James I promoted the idea of a unified “Great” Britain, cultivating the image of:
a unified kingdom between England and Scotland
the strength of a powerful monarch
a destiny of greatness abroad
By comparison, the Rome of the late first century BCE was defined by the rapid expansion of its influence and power:
Following decades of conquest and growth, Rome controlled vast regions stretching from Spain to Asia Minor and from North Africa to Gaul
In 60 BCE, before Antony and Cleopatra is set, Julius Caesar formed a coalition with Crassus and Pompey:
The subsequent and successful expansion of the Roman Republic into the west made him a popular figure
By 40 BCE, authority over different provinces was divided among powerful commanders
During the time in which the play is set, Rome’s international power was shaped by the territories of these commanders:
Mark Antony held authority over Rome’s eastern provinces, including Egypt, while Octavius Caesar consolidated control over the western territories
Each leader maintained their own control of their armies and systems, reflecting a world in which military strength and political ambition determined international power
Roman expansion also brought it into contact with diverse cultures, wealthier Eastern kingdoms, and regions with long-established traditions of power:
Resources, strategic position, and the symbolic prestige of Egypt made it one of the most significant of these states, and both an ally and rival to Rome’s dominance and ambitions
The relationship between Rome and Egypt was a reflection of the wider patterns of dominance, negotiation, and cultural tension typical of an expanding empire
How this links to Antony and Cleopatra | |
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Expanding empire | Antony governs the Eastern provinces, and even as a powerful figure of Rome, spends the majority of his time in Egypt. This not only shows the reach of an emerging empire, but also how focusing on expansion abroad can weaken the power base back home. Antony had no control over Rome as he spent too much time away from it, allowing Octavius to build power and make political moves (like sidelining Lepidus). |
A mirror for Great Britain | Rome is presented much as how Britain wanted to present itself under the rule of a new Stuart king in James I. It is obsessed with order, and despite the Triumvirate’s start, it ends with a single, strong leader in place, with Octavius the leading figure that James wanted to be. Rome imagines its greatness abroad as a civilising destiny, bringing Roman brilliance to foreign peoples supposedly improved by its rule, a self-justifying story echoed later in British imperial rhetoric. |
Social context
Cultural changes and differences
The Renaissance period was still in effect when Shakespeare wrote Antony and Cleopatra:
Philosophies surrounding humanism, the need for individuals to have agency and power to live in accordance with one’s beliefs, became popular:
Humanism emphasised classical virtue, reason, education and civic responsibility
This was in contrast to the traditions of religious society and fealty to institutions like the Crown:
There was still a sense of public duty, but now this was balanced by what people wanted for themselves
Whilst Renaissance humanism saw individuals encouraged to explore their personal identity and emotional fulfilment, the social and political world of England at the time still demanded loyalty and obedience to established roles
This was notable across different corners of society:
Court culture was especially shaped by this tension: nobles were expected to serve the state faithfully while also navigating powerful personal relationships, ambitions, and rivalries
Roman society remained divided between:
The patrician class, made up of hereditary land-owning families who traditionally dominated political office and military command
The plebeians, or common citizens, who had limited political influence despite forming the majority of the population
Early modern England viewed foreign cultures with a mix of fascination and anxiety, whilst maintaining a feeling of superiority:
England viewed itself as civilised, destined to lead, and considered that they were spreading a better way of life to other places
Foreign lands remained exotic, dangerous, and morally suspect
Popular literature often portrayed non-European societies as morally weaker, with more luxury and more corruption:
This reinforced the idea that English values and Protestant order were inherently superior
Superstition and omen
In the Elizabethan era, unexplained events were often attributed to supernatural or mysterious forces, shaping decisions and sometimes causing conflict or unnecessary fear:
Shakespeare frequently explores characters who avoid responsibility by surrendering to fate, showing how fatalistic thinking can lead to poor choices or tragic outcomes.
Nature was viewed as a powerful force capable of signalling danger: unusual animal behaviour, storms, or sudden weather changes were often interpreted as ominous warnings
16th century Britain was strongly influenced by Roman mythology, in which gods of the sky, sea, and natural world were believed to express their emotions through events affecting human life
How this links to Antony and Cleopatra | |
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Duty versus desire | We see, throughout the play, how a sense of duty and the will of desire clash, especially for Antony. He is torn between the Roman expectations of discipline, military service, and political responsibility, and his intense desire for Cleopatra and the freedom he associates with Egypt. Any time his desire takes priority, he is mocked and insulted in Rome as a decadent and lazy man. Cleopatra also balances her personal emotions with the demands of ruling a kingdom under threat from Roman expansion. Their conflict reflects wider early modern anxieties about the balance of pursuing private fulfilment without failing in their public obligations. The play’s exploration of divided loyalty, competing identities, and the costs of choosing desire over duty would have resonated as the country continued to change. |
Cultural conflict | At this time, England still viewed foreign cultures with fascination and anxiety, but also as inferior. Rome shares this superiority, similarly seeing itself as exalted, a state of discipline and order, compared to the lavish and garish nature of Egyptian wealth and royalty. Antony is presented as a man who has lost his discipline in the indulgent lifestyle of the Egyptians. Rome, like Great Britain, saw itself as superior to the exotic and morally suspect foreigners. Cleopatra’s Egypt becomes a stage on which these cultural tensions play out, much like later British encounters with the Middle East, Africa, and Asia. |
Superstition and omen | Antony and Cleopatra reflects early modern beliefs in signs and fate. Characters interpret natural and political events symbolically, reading meaning into fortune, victory, and loss. Antony frequently attributes outcomes in battle to destiny rather than judgement, revealing a tendency to avoid accountability. Cleopatra’s final act also draws on symbolic thinking: she chooses a death associated with myth, legend, and regal transcendence. The play’s emphasis on fortune, fate, and the unpredictability of human affairs mirrors contemporary anxieties about how external forces shape personal and political outcomes. |
Literary context
Historical drama
Antony and Cleopatra was one of Shakespeare’s group of Roman plays and is heavily influenced by Plutarch’s Parallel Lives
The Romans and Greeks were a regular source of inspiration for Shakespeare, as can be seen in other plays, such as Coriolanus, Julius Caesar, Timon of Athens, and A Midsummer Night’s Dream
His plays were popular with citizens and were performed for Queen Elizabeth I, and King James I
Complexity and experimentation
Theatrical culture of the time valued complexity and experimentation:
Tragedies alone were not enough, blending them with history, romance, and political drama
Audiences changed following the Renaissance and expected more settings that shifted rapidly, and much the same for tone and perspective
There was an emphasis on spectacle and charismatic performance, especially on the staging of powerful figures
Stories of historical names, but laced with more theatrical elements, made these legends relatable, and the stories more varied and entertaining, rather than strict historical documentations
The play reflects Renaissance interest in complex and multilayered narratives that contained elements of many genres
Stoicism
Stoicism is a Hellenistic (Greek) philosophy, founded in Athens around 300 BCE, and revived in 16th-century Europe
Renaissance readers and theatregoers were fascinated by stoicism and the downfall of totemic figures:
It is based around the idea that individuals should stay calm and accept circumstances cannot change
It draws on arguments made by philosophers such as Aristotle, Cicero, and Seneca, who explored how free will and predetermined fate can coexist in human experience
It offers a way for individuals to maintain a sense of autonomy by accepting that much of life lies beyond their control
The word “stoic” derives from this: a person who remains calm and without displays of distress in the face of pain or hardship
How this links to Antony and Cleopatra | |
|---|---|
Historical drama | Shakespeare adapted historical sources to create a dramatic narrative that blends history with drama. While many events are based on recorded history, Shakespeare creates dialogue and symbolism, within the structure of a theatrical drama, to explore broader themes of power, identity, and cultural contrast. Like other historical dramas of the period, the play uses the past to comment on contemporary concerns, such as leadership, ambition, and the instability of political alliances. |
Complexity and experimentation | Rather than presenting a straightforward tragedy, Shakespeare blends history, drama and romance to create a spectacle. The play’s rapid shifts between Rome and Egypt mirror Renaissance audiences' expectations for varied settings, changing tones, and contrasting perspectives. Cleopatra’s theatricality and Antony’s charismatic presence exemplify the era’s interest in powerful, captivating figures on stage, and contrast with the discipline of Octavius. Shakespeare uses the play to transform well-known figures into relatable characters, satisfying an audience that valued entertainment over historical accuracy. |
Stoicism | Roman culture valued restraint and emotional discipline, ideals that Antony increasingly struggles to meet. His failure to embody Stoic steadiness, particularly during military and political crises, highlights the tension between Roman expectations and his desire-driven choices. Cleopatra’s suicide can also be viewed within a Stoic framework: it becomes an act of autonomy and dignity, allowing her to control the manner of her death rather than submit to humiliation. The play reflects Renaissance interests in classical philosophy by exploring how individuals respond when fortune turns against them. |
Sources
Shakespeare, W., Munday, A., Fletcher, J., Middleton, T., Heywood, T., Peele, G., Dekker, T., Wilkins, G., & Chettle, H. (2005). The Oxford Shakespeare: The Complete Works (Second Edition). In Oxford University Press eBooks. https://doi.org/10.1093/actrade/9780199267170.book.1 (opens in a new tab)
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