Explanations for Nicotine Addiction (AQA A Level Psychology): Flashcards

Upregulation is when more nicotinic receptors become functional again after abstinence, so dopamine neurons resensitise and more become available.

More receptors are available and overstimulated by acetylcholine, contributing to acute withdrawal symptoms such as anxiety and agitation.

After abstinence receptors are at their most sensitive, so the first cigarette re-activates the dopamine reward system.

Long-term nicotine use increases the number of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, making withdrawal worse.

People with schizophrenia treated with haloperidol, a dopamine antagonist, increased their smoking, suggesting they sought a nicotine 'hit' to raise dopamine.

The first cigarette of the morning had the largest effect on blood flow in the nucleus accumbens, amygdala and hippocampus, supporting the desensitisation hypothesis.

The dopamine effect of smoking occurred in different brain regions in men and women, suggesting they may smoke for different reasons.

Differences in the dopaminergic pathway may be inherited, so some individuals feel more reward from nicotine than others.

Nicotine replacement therapy in the form of patches and inhalers, with research raising the possibility of nicotine immunisation.

Schizophrenia, depression and alcoholism have high co-morbidity with smoking, so more effective treatments may aid these disorders too.

False.

Much evidence comes from animal experiments, so findings may not be generalisable to humans.

Other mechanisms are involved, including GABA, serotonin and endogenous opioids, though Berrendero et al. (2010) argue dopamine remains central.

It ignores psychological and social factors such as stress, peer pressure and habits; a holistic view would consider how these interact with brain chemistry.

Finding gender differences in neural response suggests previous models overlooked sex-based differences, creating gender bias in addiction models and treatments.

Addiction is learned through association: nicotine's pleasurable effect is the unconditioned stimulus, producing an unconditioned response of pleasure that is not learned.

Secondary reinforcers are stimuli present at the same time as, or just before, nicotine's pleasurable effect, which become associated with it and take on the properties of the primary reinforcer.

Examples include a favourite lighter, the ritual of lighting up, the feel of the cigarette packet, the tobacco smell, or environments such as pub gardens and friends.

Young people observe and imitate role models who smoke, and vicarious reinforcement leads them to expect enjoyment from smoking.

Cue reactivity is the physiological and psychological response, similar to that of nicotine itself, produced by the presence of stimuli associated with smoking.

Self-reported craving, physiological signs such as heart rate and skin temperature, and behavioural indicators such as how many draws are taken.

Being in certain places or with certain people acts as a cue that triggers the desire to smoke very strongly.

Nicotine stimulates dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens, producing mild euphoria that positively reinforces smoking.

It can explain both the early stages of smoking addiction and how people take up smoking in the first place.

Withdrawal symptoms of agitation and anxiety are unpleasant, so smoking another cigarette is reinforced because it stops them.

False.

Smokers become skilled at anticipating withdrawal and avoid it altogether by regulating their nicotine intake.

Media images of smoking created perceptions of it as attractive and 'macho', increasing motivation to smoke and supporting social learning theory.

Adolescent smokers had friends who smoked and were more likely to conform to the group's social norm, supporting vicarious reinforcement.

Smokers shown smoking-related cues had a more pronounced, intense neural response than when shown neutral cues.

It counterconditions nicotine addiction by associating the pleasurable effects of smoking with an aversive stimulus such as a painful electric shock.

After aversive shocks for smoking-related behaviours, 52% were still abstaining after a year, compared with 20-25% of people who decide to give up.

In a meta-analysis of 41 studies, dependent smokers reacted most strongly to smoking cues, reporting high craving and increased physiological arousal.

False.

No more than half become dependent, and few occasional adolescent smokers experience withdrawal symptoms.

Young women are more sensitive to smoking-related cues, making it harder to stop smoking and to prevent relapse after abstention.

Women's lower success at quitting could be explained by self-efficacy, as they may have less confidence in their ability to give up.

It emphasises social learning and environmental cues rather than biological predispositions, which suits initial onset but is weaker on long-term dependency.

It oversimplifies addiction into stimulus-response associations and reinforcement, ignoring biological, emotional and cognitive factors such as genetics and beliefs.