An Introduction to Neuropsychology (AQA GCSE Psychology): Flashcards

Brain structure (i.e. what the brain is) and brain function (i.e. what the brain does).

CT (Computerised Axial Tomography), PET (Positron Emission Tomography), and fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging).

A CT scan uses an X-ray beam to produce a picture of the brain. The beam moves in a circle around the brain, allowing many cross-sectional views to be seen in great detail. The data is sent to a computer which interprets it and displays it in 2D form.

Tumours, internal bleeding (such as when a stroke has occurred), and other injuries or damage.

They produce much more detailed images than traditional X-rays, making them hugely useful for detecting brain abnormalities; and they are widely available and relatively quick to carry out compared with other scanning techniques.

False.

CT scans do not show brain function, which means their use is limited to research involving structural change or features only.

CT scans use radiation, which means that they cannot be used with the same person too many times.

A PET scan involves injecting the patient with a radioactive tracer to show a picture of brain activity. The tracer itself is a radioactive substance similar to glucose, which active brain areas absorb more of.

Because if cells require more energy they will burn more glucose, and this is what is shown in the scan.

PET scans can show the brain in action, which is useful for psychological research.

They are useful for showing localisation of function — a person can be asked to look at a picture, solve a jigsaw puzzle, or think about a memory, and the linked brain area can be identified.

They are extremely expensive and therefore not easily available for research; and the results are not always easy to interpret.

False.

Scans of different people doing the same task have shown different patterns of brain activity — which is why PET results are not always easy to interpret.

Using a radioactive tracer involves some risk to the patient, and ethical concerns around repeated radioactive injections mean the technique can only be used a limited number of times.

An fMRI measures changes in blood oxygen levels in the brain and produces a moving picture. It uses large magnets to detect oxygenated (and deoxygenated) blood flow.

The change in blood oxygen levels that an fMRI measures is known as the haemodynamic response.

False.

Inactive or less active parts show deoxygenated blood — more active brain areas need more blood flow, which is oxygenated blood.

It enables researchers to measure oxygenated blood in specific brain regions, informing them of brain activity linked to cognitive processes such as emotion; and it does not use radiation (unlike PET), so it is a non-invasive procedure.

The images produced by fMRI are extremely clear and can show brain activity to the millimetre.

fMRI is slow, having a 5-second delay between brain activity and measurement, so it may miss some important information.

It is only effective if the person being scanned stays perfectly still, which can be a problem for some people such as children; and it is an expensive procedure, so its use is limited and may vary according to a hospital or research institute’s budget.

They are only as good as the humans operating them — machines may be mis-calibrated, the room temperature may interfere with the measurement, and the person interpreting the scan may miss something vital.

Episodic memory is the part of long-term memory (LTM) that relates to life experiences, episodes or events — e.g. your 16th birthday party, or the first time you see the sea.

Semantic memory is the part of LTM that involves knowing and recalling facts, concepts and meanings — e.g. knowing that Paris is the capital of France.

That the two types of LTM — episodic and semantic — were stored in different places in the brain.

Tulving used a type of PET scan with a gold radioactive tracer, which each participant was injected with.

6 participants — one of whom was Tulving himself, and another was his wife.

False.

A repeated measures design was used, in which participants were asked to recall four episodic memories and four semantic memories, presented in a random order.

The active brain areas, measured using the scanning device for each of the four episodic and each of the four semantic memory sessions.

50% — i.e. 3 out of 6 participants.

In the anterior cortex — the frontal and temporal lobes.

Semantic memories showed greater blood flow in the posterior cortex — the parietal and occipital lobes.

That episodic and semantic memories are stored in different areas of the brain — i.e. each type of LTM is localised to specific regions.

The study produced objective evidence, as it would have been very difficult or impossible for participants to fake or consciously influence the brain scan results — unlike self-report data.

Because the findings are less likely to be affected by participant bias or demand characteristics.

False.

The small sample size of 6 — only half of whom showed differences in the scans — drastically limits the generalisability of the findings.

There is some doubt as to the distinctness of episodic and semantic memory, as the two types can overlap within a single memory.

Recalling a holiday in Paris (episodic) is tied up with knowing that you went to Paris on holiday (semantic).

It may help explain why only half of Tulving’s participants showed a clear difference in blood flow between the two memory types.

Neurological damage refers to any damage caused to the neurons in the brain — caused by, for example, collision, illness or impact.

A stroke is a dangerous, life-threatening event which occurs when the blood supply to a particular brain region is interrupted — either because of a blockage, or because of a bleed in the brain.

It can permanently damage the part of the brain where it has struck.

The motor area in the frontal lobes — in either the left or the right hemisphere.

False.

A stroke in the left hemisphere will impair movement on the right side of the body, and vice versa.

Difficulty writing, walking, picking up objects and so on — the extent to which movement is impaired depends on the severity of the stroke.

Aphasia is the term used to describe any language impairment or disability.

They may struggle to understand what other people are saying, to produce intelligible speech, and to read and/or write.

True.

Both areas are located in the left hemisphere, so a stroke there could affect either or both.

A stroke in Broca’s area results in difficulties producing speech, known as Broca’s aphasia.

They may speak slowly and have difficulty finding the right words.

Difficulties understanding speech — known as Wernicke’s aphasia. The person’s own speech may remain fluent but become meaningless, using ‘made up’ or nonsense words, and reading and writing are also severely affected.

Because of the brain’s ability to ‘heal’ itself — i.e. brain plasticity.

Functional recovery is the term for reversing the damage a stroke has done.

The younger a person is, the more likely they are to recover from neurological damage, as their brain is still developing and is more resistant to permanent impairment.