Data Handling: Types, Interpretation & Display of Data (AQA GCSE Psychology): Flashcards
Exam code: 8182
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Define quantitative data.
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Define quantitative data.
Quantitative data is data in the form of numbers — such as ‘53 out of 125 participants answered yes’, or ‘a −0.4 correlation coefficient’.
What can quantitative data be transformed into?
Tables, graphs, charts, percentages and fractions. It can also be statistically analysed using descriptive statistics such as the mean, mode and range.
Name three research methods that generate quantitative data.
Experiments — scores per condition; observations — tally charts recording frequencies; and questionnaires using closed questions.
Give one strength of quantitative data.
It tends to be reliable, as it is easy to analyse and compare. The techniques used to collect it are also replicable — such as the standardised procedure of a lab experiment, or a rating scale on a questionnaire.
Give one weakness of quantitative data.
It shows what but not why a result was found, so it lacks explanatory power. It also tends to over-simplify the complex, multi-faceted nature of human behaviour.
Define qualitative data.
Qualitative data is data in the form of words or images.
Give three examples of qualitative data.
Thoughts and feelings expressed in a diary or journal; attitudes, ideas and beliefs discussed in an interview; a painting created to express inner turmoil; or a focus group interview.
Qualitative data can be analysed using analysis, which identifies themes and patterns.
Qualitative data can be analysed using content analysis, which identifies themes and patterns.
Give one strength of qualitative data.
It is rich and insightful, drawing from personal experience and subjective meaning, and tends to be high in ecological validity, as it is gathered from real experience in real settings.
True or False?
Qualitative data is high in reliability.
False.
An unstructured interview cannot be exactly repeated, even with the same person, as it is not standardised — reducing consistency.
Why can qualitative data lack consistency between researchers?
It is open to interpretation, so two different researchers might draw different conclusions from the same material.
Give a second weakness of qualitative data.
It is extremely time-consuming to analyse, and the amount generated from just one interview means some of that data may end up not being used.
Why would counting items recalled increase reliability over a qualitative measure?
Recalling items generates quantitative data, measured as how many items each participant remembered per condition — which can be translated into percentages and graphs for easy comparison across conditions.
Define primary data.
Primary data is any research findings which have been collected at the source — the data obtained from running an experiment or conducting an interview.
What did Loftus & Palmer (1974) collect as primary data?
Speed estimates, based on their manipulation of key verbs, to test the reliability of eyewitness testimony.
Primary data is ‘fresh’ — it has not been previously .
Primary data is ‘fresh’ — it has not been previously published.
Give one strength of primary data.
It may be more reliable and valid than secondary data, as the researcher has full control over how it is collected. It is also usually up to date, collected in real time.
Give one weakness of primary data.
It may not be possible to collect for some research — if the topic is unusual, complex, or requires more commitment than the researcher can give. It may also be subject to researcher bias.
Define secondary data.
Secondary data is any research findings which are pre-existing — not collected at source, and not original data.
Who collects secondary data?
Other researchers, each of whom will have been working to achieve their own specific aim.
What advantage does secondary data give a ‘non-interested’ researcher?
Not having been involved in the original research, they can gain a clear picture of the topic — because they may be using data derived from multiple sources.
Give one strength of secondary data.
It can be accessed quickly and easily, so a researcher can use a range of sources to investigate a topic. It may also provide new insight into existing theories and research.
True or False?
Secondary data never needs its authenticity checking.
False.
As the researcher did not run the original research, they may have to verify its authenticity and validity — which is time-consuming and not always possible.
Give a second weakness of secondary data.
It may be outdated, which would affect both its reliability and validity.
Define a frequency table.
A frequency table organises frequency data — measuring the number of times a behaviour, action or phenomenon occurs.
Give two examples of frequency data.
The number of times litter is dropped; the number of times red is chosen for a T-shirt design; or the number of goals scored by players in one season.
How do you calculate the mean from a frequency table?
Multiply each score by its frequency, add those totals together, then divide by the total number of data points.
How do you find the median from a frequency table?
It is the value held by the item that sits in the middle of the ordered data set.
In the goals frequency table, what is the mode, and how is the range found?
The mode is 4, as that happened 20 times in one season. The range is found by subtracting the lowest score from the highest: 5 − 1 = 4.
What does the x-axis of a histogram represent?
The categories that have been measured — such as the number of goals scored.
What does the y-axis of a histogram represent?
The frequencies of each category occurring.
On a histogram, the x-axis is the line of the graph.
On a histogram, the x-axis is the horizontal line of the graph.
True or False?
Histograms have gaps between the bars.
False.
Histograms do not have gaps. Bar charts do, because they compare categories of data.
Define a bar chart.
A bar chart is a frequency display in which the data on the x-axis is discrete, not continuous. It deals with categorical data, which does not necessarily fall in any particular order.
When might a researcher use a bar chart?
If they had conducted an experiment with three conditions, they could use one to display the means of each condition.
Define a scattergram.
A scattergram is used to display the results of correlations, showing the point at which two separate pieces of data meet.
True or False?
It matters which axis each co-variable is placed on in a scattergram.
False.
Each co-variable can be presented on either axis — a strong positive correlation will show regardless of which axis is chosen.
What does the arrangement of points on a scattergram indicate?
Whether there is a positive correlation, a negative correlation, no correlation, or a curvilinear relationship.
Define distribution, in psychology.
Distribution refers to the spread of data around the mean for a specific sample or population.
What are researchers looking for when they examine a distribution?
The extent to which a data set varies from the mean — whether most scores cluster around the mean, are spread symmetrically, or are skewed.
Define a normal distribution.
A normal distribution is symmetrical around the mean, with most scores close to it, showing a peak in the middle where the mean value is located.
The shape of a normal distribution is known as the ‘ curve’.
The shape of a normal distribution is known as the ‘bell curve’.
Where do the mean, mode and median appear in a perfect normal distribution?
All three appear at the peak of the curve — they have similar values.
What do scores to the left and right of the peak represent?
Scores to the left represent people who scored less than the mean; scores to the right represent people who scored more than the mean.
True or False?
The tails of a normal distribution curve touch the x-axis.
False.
Each tail never touches the x-axis, because no assumption is made about the most extreme score — there may be people in the population who have not been measured.
Name three measurements likely to be normally distributed.
Height, shoe size and IQ.
Which data set is normally distributed: mean 45, median 44, mode 43 — or mean 47, median 47, mode 47?
Mean 47, median 47, mode 47 — in a normal distribution, all three values are the same.
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