The Reform of the British Army, 1790-1918 (Edexcel A Level History: Paper 3 Options): Revision Note
Exam code: 9HI0
Summary
The British Army was a volunteer force in 1790 and remained so until the First World War
Discipline was brutally enforced by officers who came from the upper classes of society
The major branches of the Army were the infantry, the cavalry and the artillery
The Crimean War of 1854–56 exposed some major problems in the Army's organisation and leadership
This led to the McNeill-Tulloch Report in 1855
This report criticised the Army's High Command and the Commissariat, which was responsible for keeping troops supplied
It led to the reform of the Commissariat but not the Army's leadership
The threat posed by Prussia as a military power and the problem of recruiting enough troops led to the Cardwell Reforms from 1868–74
These reforms introduced short service of 12 years
Six with the colours and six in the reserve
They also stopped wealthy officers from purchasing commissions and promotions
The reforms failed to solve the recruitment problem, and officers were still almost all from the upper classes
Weaknesses and problems exposed by the Boer War from 1899–1902 led to Haldane's Army reforms
These took place between 1905 and 1912 and included:
The creation of a 150,000-strong Expeditionary Force
The creation of an Officer Training Corps
Haldane's reforms led to the British Army performing very well in the first few months of the First World War
The British Army was much smaller than the armies of France and Germany
The British Army in 1790: organisation, ordnance and supplies
Soldiers
The British Army contained around 40,000 men in 1790
These soldiers were not conscripted but were all volunteers
Many volunteers were deliberately intoxicated and tricked into enlisting
Others were convicted criminals who were given the choice between the army and prison
Soldiers were paid less than farm labourers but were given food and accommodation
Discipline was brutal, and men could be given up to 1,200 strokes with a whip
Enlisting enough men was always a problem
Members of the militia, which was the military force dedicated to protecting Britain from invasion, were offered cash payments, known as a bounty, to join the regular Army
Foreign men were also recruited to serve in the British Army, particularly from Germany
Britain's kings were also rulers of the German state of Hanover
Many men from Hanover joined the King's German Legion
Officers
Officers held positions of authority in the Army
Lieutenant-colonels, supported by two majors, commanded battalions or regiments that contained between 900 and 2,000 men
Battalions and regiments were split into companies of around 100 men
Companies were led by captains and two lieutenants
Battalions were combined to form brigades, which were commanded by a colonel or major-general
Brigades were combined to form a division, which was commanded by a general
The officers who fulfilled these various leadership roles were rarely formally trained
Formal officer training only began with the founding of the Royal Military College (1801–02) and Sandhurst from 1812
Most officers were from the upper classes, and their wealthy fathers had paid for their commission
Promotions through the system were also purchased
This led to accusations of the wealthiest men, rather than the best men, being placed in charge
The Duke of York's reforms (from 1795) required officers to serve for two years before they could purchase a promotion to captain
Branches of the Army
The Army was organised into various branches that each had a specific role
Infantry
The Infantry were the foot soldiers who walked into battle armed with muskets or rifles
Between 1716 and the 1840s, most British infantrymen fought with the Brown Bess flintlock musket
This was 152 cm long and was fitted with a 43 cm bayonet
Infantrymen carried paper cartridges that contained both the gunpowder and lead ball
These were poured down the barrel and pushed to the end with a ramrod
The Brown Bess was accurate to around 100 metres and could fire up to three shots a minute
Because muskets were inaccurate, soldiers were often ordered to fire on a particular target simultaneously, known as volley fire
British soldiers usually went into battle standing shoulder to shoulder in rows two ranks deep
When attacked by cavalry, they would form defensive squares, with each side between four and six ranks deep
Cavalry
Cavalry are soldiers who fight on horseback
Heavy cavalry rode large horses, fought with straight swords and charged the enemy lines
Light cavalry carried curved swords called sabres and rode lighter, faster horses
They were used for reconnaissance and pursuit of fleeing enemies
All cavalrymen also carried a short gun known as a carbine that was not very accurate and, like the Brown Bess, took a long time to load
Artillery
Artillery regiments used large, heavy guns that were pulled to the battlefield by horses
They were divided into batteries that usually had five cannon and one howitzer
Cannon fired on a flat trajectory straight at the enemy
Howitzers fired projectiles higher so they fell upon the heads of the enemy
Artillery had an accurate range of up to 1,000 metres, but that depended on the type of projectile fired
Round shot were solid iron balls that flew fastest and furthest
Canister shot fired many smaller iron balls all at once, which spread out but were only effective up to 300 metres
Shrapnel shells were filled with musket balls and fitted with a fuse
This was lit and would explode in mid-air, showering the enemy below with musket balls
Ordnance and supplies
The Board of Ordnance, a separate department, ran the artillery and engineers and supplied weapons and ammunition
During campaigns, food and transport were arranged by commissaries who reported to the Treasury, not to the Army
The reduction of the army after 1815
After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, the threat of invasion was removed
As a result, less money was spent on the military and the Army was dramatically reduced in size
Although troops were still needed to defend the growing Empire, the prospect of saving money by reducing troop numbers was too tempting for politicians
The Duke of Wellington and resistance to reform
After his defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo in 1815, Wellington was viewed as a war hero and Britain's greatest ever soldier
He was made Commander-in-Chief of the Army between 1827 and 1828 and between 1842 and 1852
Wellington believed that the Army that defeated Napoleon did not need to change
He stubbornly resisted attempts to reform the Army
One significant reform that was introduced whilst he was Commander-in-Chief was the Limited Enlistment Act of 1847
This introduced shorter periods of service for soldiers
Infantry soldiers could serve for 10 years
Cavalry soldiers could serve for 12 years
This was a major reduction from enlistment that was effectively for life (in practice 21 years)
It was intended to make joining the Army a more attractive prospect and improve recruitment
The McNeill-Tulloch Report, 1855
The Crimean War 1854–6
The McNeill-Tulloch Report of 1855 was written in response to the Crimean War of 1854 to 1856
Britain had joined forces with France to prevent Russia from taking possession of lands that were part of the Ottoman Empire
Britain and France wanted to prevent Russia's expansion, with Britain keen to ensure that the Russian Navy did not get access to the Mediterranean
Britain had not sent large numbers of soldiers to fight in Europe since Napoleon's defeat in 1815
Although Britain and France were ultimately successful and Russia was prevented from expanding into the Ottoman Empire, it came at a price
Around 22,000 of the 98,000 British soldiers that fought in the Crimean War died
However, fewer than one in five died in battle, and most died from disease
It was felt by many that Britain's soldiers had been let down by the Army
They believed that the lack of organisation had prevented food, ammunition and medical supplies from getting to the troops
The critical reports from journalists who had travelled to Crimea led to Sir John McNeill and Colonel Alexander Tulloch reviewing the organisation and delivery of supplies
They travelled to Crimea in 1855 to investigate and write a report of the situation
The report was highly critical of the Army's high command but especially the Commissariat — which was responsible for supplying troops with food, fuel, transport, and other essential provisions during military campaigns
The Board of Ordnance was abolished in 1855, bringing weapons and supplies under the War Department
The McNeill-Tulloch Report directly led to the reform of the Commissariat in 1858
These reforms made the Commissariat more efficient and professional
The report did not, however, lead to wider changes to the leadership and organisation of the Army
It is admitted that the land transport service of the army in the Crimea has fallen into a state of inefficiency. It had been placed under the charge of the Commissariat, and, as the duties of that department were sufficiently ample to occupy the whole time of one head, it was by no means surprising that, almost overburdened with its own special functions, the Commissariat had proved little qualified to cope with the difficulties which met it when it attempted to carry on the duties of another department. It must be remembered, however, in justice to the Commissariat, that it had been called on not only to provide means of transport for the rations of the men and the forage of the horses, and for the carriage of the sick, but also for the conveyance to the camp of large quantities of warm clothing, huts, and other articles, although at the time the animals which it had collected together were dying in large numbers from the insufficiency of food, the badness of the roads, and also from exposure to the inclemency of the weather. Certain it is that this service was in a state of admitted deficiency, and the Government have, therefore, determined to organise this land transport corps, under the command of Colonel M'Murdo, which would undertake the whole of the land transport of the army.
An extract from a speech by the Under-Secretary of State for War, Sir Frederick Peel, during a debate in the House of Commons on the Army Supply Estimates, 19 February 1855
Approach
Peel's speech provides valuable evidence of organisational weakness during the Crimean War. As Under-Secretary of State for War, he officially acknowledged that the land transport system had become inefficient and that the Commissariat had been overloaded. His announcement of a separate Land Transport Corps demonstrates that the government recognised these weaknesses and attempted to reform them during the conflict. However, Peel was a government minister defending Army estimates before Parliament, so he may be attempting to portray the problems as inevitable consequences of difficult conditions.
Examiner Tips and Tricks
Don't ignore 1790–1854: examiners criticise answers that start in 1855. Use the Duke of York's reforms and Wellington's conservatism to cover the early period.
Cardwell's army reforms, 1868–74
The second half of the 19th century saw modern and powerful military forces being built in Prussia (Germany after 1871)
This convinced many people in Britain that the British Army needed to be reformed and modernised to meet this new threat
Edward Cardwell was the Secretary of State for War between 1868 and 1874
He introduced wide-ranging reforms designed to improve the organisation of the Army and solve the long-standing problem of attracting and recruiting soldiers
His reforms included:
Short service: 12 years, six with the colours and six in the reserve, creating a trained reserve (Army Enlistment Act 1870)
The abolition of the purchase system for officers (1871)
The division of the country into 66 districts, which were each assigned two battalions and two militia battalions
The abolition of flogging in peacetime (1868)
The War Office Act (1870), which placed the Commander-in-Chief under the Secretary of State for War
Impact of Cardwell's reforms
The introduction of short-term enlistments did not solve the problem of recruitment
The social make-up of the officer corps barely changed
Officers were still almost exclusively from the upper classes
The demand for soldiers in various parts of the Empire meant the battalions did not spend much time in their home districts
Haldane's army reforms, 1905–12
Between 1899 and 1902, Britain fought a war in Africa against the descendants of European colonists, mostly from the Netherlands and France
These colonists were known as Boers, which is the Dutch word for 'farmers'
The Boers had formed two republics called the Orange Free State and the South African Republic, or Transvaal
The war was fought over control and influence in Southern Africa
Many British miners (Uitlanders) had moved to the Transvaal after the discovery of gold on the Witwatersrand in 1886
Britain went to war with the Boer republics over both the treatment of these British nationals and the wider issue of control and influence over Southern Africa
Although Britain won the war, it exposed large weaknesses in the British Army in the areas of:
Organisation
Training
Tactics
Recruitment
I am anxious to say one or two words about the military system under this proposal. I must say there are some most striking defects. One is that little consideration is given to the condition of recruiting. The right hon. Gentleman knows, and the House knows, what the comparative crisis will be which he will have to face when the troops come back from South Africa. There are a number of men who are waiting for their discharge, the Reserve is depleted, three years' reliefs for India are due, and besides this we have these ominous words from the Inspector General of Recruiting, where he says— It will be many a day before the supply of recruits comes up to the demand. And again— that the great problem of the military system now is to find recruits for our increasing requirements. In the first three months of this year there was a deficiency of 3,000 recruits as compared with the same period of last year."
An extract from a speech by Sir Arthur Hayter MP during a debate on Army Organisation in the House of Commons on 16 May 1901
These weaknesses, along with the perceived growing threat from Germany led to Haldane's reforms
These involved creating:
An Imperial General Staff (1906–09) to plan and coordinate strategy
A professional, highly trained Expeditionary Force of 150,000 men that could be dispatched abroad quickly
A Territorial Force of part-time volunteers for home defence, which could expand the Army in an emergency
The Officer Training Corps to ensure the troops had effective leadership
Impact of Haldane's reforms
When war broke out in 1914, the impact of Haldane's reforms was seen in the efficient dispatch and excellent performance of the British Expeditionary Force
Britain's Army was better led, better organised and better trained than it had been at the start of the Boer War
However, Britain's generals had underestimated the impact that the machine gun was going to have
Britain's Army was also very small in comparison to those of its neighbours
Britain had six divisions ready to fight in Europe in mid-1914
Germany had 84 divisions
France had 66 divisions
Neither the Territorial Force nor the Officer Training Corps reached its planned size
How far did the organisation of the British Army improve, 1790–1918?
The British Army changed and improved beyond all recognition between 1790 and 1918
The Duke of York’s reforms had begun to limit the purchase system from 1795, but Wellington’s influence slowed further change until the Crimean War
Supply improved after the McNeill-Tulloch Report, with the Commissariat reformed in 1858
It became more professional, with the abolition of purchasing officers’ commissions during Cardwell’s reforms
It was also much better and more centrally organised after Haldane’s reforms
However, these improvements were often the consequence of a military disaster
Reforms did not come through looking ahead
Instead, they came after weaknesses had been exposed whilst fighting in wars such as the Crimean War or the Boer War
Overall, organisation improved most after 1868, when Cardwell and then Haldane built a reserve, a General Staff and a force ready to deploy
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