The Home Front & the Civilian War Effort, 1790-1918 (Edexcel A Level History: Paper 3 Options): Revision Note
Exam code: 9HI0
Summary
British civilians have always been involved in Britain's wars between 1790 and 1918
The wives and children of soldiers followed the Army to the Front
These camp followers would provide important services, including nursing
Civilian involvement increased over time, particularly in the areas of journalism and nursing
The First World War marked an enormous expansion in the role of the civilian in winning the war
The civilian contribution in manufacturing weapons was so vital it became known as the Home Front
From camp followers to civilian support
Camp followers
The wars between 1790 and 1902 were fought abroad but civilians still felt them through taxation, recruitment and fears of invasion during the French Wars
Some British civilians travelled to the wars and this had a major impact on them
For most of the wars that happened between 1790 and 1914, a limited number of soldiers' wives and children (often about six wives per 100 men, chosen by ballot) were allowed to travel with the regiment
Otherwise, with the family's main earner away, the wives and children were forced to enter the workhouse
Families and civilians who followed armies were known as camp followers
Many female camp followers earned money through providing services such as nursing, cooking and cleaning
Others sold items that were in demand, such as tobacco and alcohol
Some became sex workers
Civilian support
During the 19th century, various professional civilians began to accompany Britain's soldiers to war
These included journalists and medical professionals, and both had a huge impact on Britain's armed forces
In the Boer War, civilians such as Emily Hobhouse exposed conditions in the concentration camps, and volunteer units such as the City Imperial Volunteers went to fight
The impact of Florence Nightingale and Mary Seacole
Although female camp followers had routinely tended to wounded soldiers, two nurses in the Crimean War became particularly well known
This was mainly due to newspaper coverage by war correspondents such as William Howard Russell of The Times
The recent invention of the electric telegraph helped news reach London far faster than in earlier wars
It was the correspondents' stories of death and suffering that led Nightingale and Seacole to go to the war
Florence Nightingale
Nightingale came from a wealthy background and, despite her family's objections, entered nursing
She became a personal friend of the Secretary at War, Sidney Herbert
After she volunteered, he sent her with a team of nurses to the British Army's hospital at Scutari, in Turkey
She worked extremely hard to improve the conditions at Scutari hospital and cared for the men there
Her actions were soon being reported by the newspapers, which brought her enormous, unwanted fame
She used this fame to influence and improve hospital design and the training of nurses
Nightingale's influence was enormous, and she changed the public's perception of nurses and nursing
As a pioneer of modern nursing, she inspired many women to join the profession
Wherever there is disease in its most dangerous form, and the hand of the spoiler distressingly nigh, there is that incomparable woman [Nightingale] sure to be seen; her benign presence is an influence for good comfort even amid the struggles of expiring nature. She is a ‘ministering angel’ without any exaggeration in these hospitals, and as her slender form glides quietly along each corridor, every poor fellow’s face softens with gratitude at the sight of her. When all the medical officers have retired for the night and silence and darkness have settled down upon those miles of prostrate sick, she may be observed alone, with a little lamp in her hand, making her solitary rounds.
An extract from a story by journalist John MacDonald that was published in The Times newspaper in February 1855
Approach
MacDonald's account has value because he observed Nightingale's work at Scutari during the Crimean War. His description of “miles of prostrate sick” provides evidence of the scale of the medical crisis facing the British Army. However, it is a highly romanticised portrayal of Nightingale as a “ministering angel” that exaggerates the role of one individual. Its focus on her personal care makes it weaker as evidence of her impact on death rates or how hospitals were run. The source therefore has most value for revealing Nightingale's contemporary reputation, and less for showing how far she personally transformed military medicine
Mary Seacole
Seacole was born in Jamaica and was the daughter of a Scottish man and a Jamaican mother
She had no formal training but worked to treat cholera victims in both Jamaica and Panama
When she read the reports of the suffering in Crimea, she travelled to London and volunteered to help
Her application was rejected, so she paid to travel to the Front herself
On the way, she met Nightingale at Scutari, then travelled on to Crimea
Seacole then built the British Hotel out of salvaged materials at Spring Hill, about two miles from Balaclava
She used this 'hotel' to nurse sick soldiers whilst also selling food and drink
Like Nightingale, the efforts of Seacole were reported by the newspapers
When she returned to Britain penniless, the press publicised her plight and a fund was set up for her
Many people contributed to the fund, including Nightingale, and Seacole became a much cherished public figure
The development of an organised home front
An organised home front means the state directing civilians, industry and food supply to support the war, and the populace means the ordinary people of Britain
As well as fighting wars, before the creation of the Metropolitan Police in 1829, the British Army fulfilled the role of maintaining law and order for the authorities
During the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (1793–1815), much of the Army was absent from Britain
The militia (re-established in 1757) was called out for home defence, and hundreds of thousands of civilians joined new Volunteer and Yeomanry units to guard against a French invasion, especially in 1803–04
The Yeomanry was also used to put down popular unrest, for example at Peterloo in 1819
The government also encouraged more intensive farming, for example through the Board of Agriculture (1793), because French blockades threatened food supplies
The First World War and the Defence of the Realm Act
During the First World War, the reorganisation of British society and industry to help win the war became known as the 'Home Front'
The Defence of the Realm Act (DORA) was passed shortly after the war began in August 1914
This enabled the government to bypass Parliament and rule by decree
It gave the government sweeping powers and enabled them to censor the press, requisition enormous amounts of goods and control the sale of alcohol
The Munitions of War Act was passed in July 1915 and enabled the government to outlaw strikes, fine people for being absent
The Minister of Munitions, David Lloyd George, declared that he was willing to suspend traditional 'freedoms' to win the war
This involved allocating people to particular jobs, such as shipbuilding and aircraft production
Leaving certificates meant munitions workers could not change jobs without their employer's permission
Compulsory rationing began in January 1918, after German submarine attacks cut food imports
Women's contribution to the war effort
When the First World War broke out in 1914, the campaign for women's right to vote was at its height
The suffragettes of the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) suspended their militant campaign after the government released suffragette prisoners in August 1914, and the suffragists of the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS) also paused campaigning to support the war
In July 1915, the "Right to Serve" march demanded that women be allowed to work in war industries
The number of women employed making munitions increased from 83,000 in 1914 to 947,000 by 1918
Women who worked in transport increased from 18,000 in 1914 to 117,000 in 1918
The Women's Land Army was set up in 1917
Over 200,000 women worked for the government during the war
Threats to the Home Front
As civilians played such an important role in helping Britain fight in the First World War, they also became a target for the enemy for the first time
Scarborough was shelled by German ships in December 1914
Huge airships known as Zeppelins and bomber planes called Gothas flew over the Channel and dropped bombs on British cities
Around 1,400 British civilians were killed, and 3,400 were injured in air raids during the First World War
How far did the civilian role in the war effort change, 1790–1918?
It can be argued that the role of the civilian in helping Britain fight wars changed enormously between 1790 and 1918
French Wars (1793–1815): civilians paid income tax, joined Volunteer units against invasion and followed the Army as camp followers
Crimean War (1854–56): civilian journalists and nurses such as Nightingale and Seacole changed how the Army treated its soldiers and how the public saw war
Boer War (1899–1902): civilian volunteers and public opinion mattered more, but the state still relied on volunteers and did not use conscription
First World War (1914–18): DORA, munitions controls, rationing and women's war work created an organised home front for the first time
The industrialised warfare of the First World War required the mobilisation of the entire population and economy to fight it
This changed the work people did, the food they ate and the laws they had to follow
However, it can also be argued that the First World War only expanded rather than changed the civilian role
Civilians had always contributed to wars by paying taxes, manufacturing supplies and supporting those who fought
The difference was the scale and intensity of involvement
Judgement
Civilians made key contributions to war throughout the period, but it was only in 1914–18 that the state organised the whole population, making the First World War a change in kind and scale
Examiner Tips and Tricks
Examiners report that some students do not know what an "organised home front" or the "populace" means. Define the term, then trace civilian contributions from the French Wars to 1918. Answers that jump straight to the First World War cannot reach the top levels, because Section C needs coverage of most of the period.
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