Social & Emotional Development (College Board AP® Psychology): Study Guide

Ecological systems theory

• Urie Bronfenbrenner proposed ecological systems theory, which is a framework for understanding how the social environment influences human development across the lifespan

• The theory proposes that development is shaped by five interconnected systems, each representing a different level of the social environment:

• Bronfenbrenner's model emphasizes that development cannot be understood by looking at the individual in isolation

  • Every person is embedded within multiple layers of social context that interact with each other and change over time

Erikson's psychosocial stage theory

• Erik Erikson proposed a stage theory of psychosocial development, which argues that people must resolve a specific psychosocial conflict at each stage of the lifespan in order to develop healthily

  • Erikson's theory was a reconceptualization of the psychosexual stage theory developed by Freud

• At each stage, the individual faces a tension between two opposing outcomes

  • Successful resolution leads to a positive psychological quality

  • Unsuccessful resolution leads to lasting difficulties

• Erikson's theory is lifespan, unlike Piaget, who focused primarily on childhood, as Erikson proposed that development continues throughout the entire life

Adolescent identity development

• The identity vs role confusion stage is particularly significant

  • Adolescents actively work to establish a coherent sense of who they are and who they will become as adults

• James Marcia extended Erikson's ideas and identified four identity statuses that describe how adolescents approach identity development:

  • Achievement: the adolescent has actively explored different possibilities and committed to a clear identity

  • Moratorium: the adolescent is actively exploring options but has not yet committed to an identity

    • They are in a period of active searching

  • Foreclosure: the adolescent has committed to an identity without exploring alternatives

    • They typically adopt the identity assigned by parents or culture

  • Diffusion: the adolescent has neither explored nor committed to an identity

    • They show little interest in resolving the question

• Identity development extends across multiple domains including:

  • racial and ethnic identity

  • gender identity

  • sexual orientation

  • religious identity

  • occupational identity

  • familial identity

• Adolescents often consider possible selves (imagined future versions of themselves) as part of the process of identity development, trying out different identities mentally before committing to one

Peer relationships across development

• Social development involves not only relationships with adults but also the development of peer relationships

  • Peer relationships change significantly across the lifespan

• In childhood, children engage with peers primarily through play:

  • Parallel play: young children play alongside each other without directly interacting

    • This is typical of toddlers

  • Pretend play: children engage in imaginative, cooperative play involving shared scenarios and role-taking

    • This develops during the preoperational stage

• In adolescence, peer relationships become increasingly central as adolescents gradually rely less on parents and more on peers for social support and identity validation

• Adolescents demonstrate a form of egocentrism distinct from Piaget's preoperational egocentrism:

  • Imaginary audience: the belief that one is constantly being observed and evaluated by others

    • This explains why adolescents are often highly self-conscious

      • E.g. an adolescent who spills a drink at a party believes everyone noticed and is judging them

  • Personal fable: the belief that one's experiences and feelings are uniquely special and that one is immune to the consequences that affect others

    • E.g. believing "I won't get into an accident if I text while driving, as that only happens to other people"

Adult social development

• Social development continues into adulthood

  • Adults form families or family-like relationships that provide mutual support and care

• A key question in adult social development is not just what relationships people form, but when

  • This is shaped by cultural expectations

• Social clock: the culturally determined timeline for when major life events are expected to occur

  • E.g. such as finishing education, getting a job, forming a committed relationship, having children, and retiring

• The social clock varies significantly across cultures

  • What is considered "on time" in one culture may be considered early or late in another

    • E.g. in some cultures, living with parents into one's late twenties is entirely normal, whereas in others it carries social stigma

• Emerging adulthood: some cultures recognize a period between adolescence and full adulthood during which individuals explore identity, relationships, and work before committing to adult roles

  • This period typically spans late teens to mid-twenties

• Childhood attachment styles can affect how adults form attachments to other adults

  • People who experienced secure attachment in childhood tend to form more secure adult relationships

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)

• Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are traumatic or stressful events experienced during childhood

  • ACEs include abuse, neglect, household dysfunction, or exposure to violence

• Research shows that ACEs have significant and lasting effects on the relationships people form throughout the lifespan

  • They affect physical health, mental health, and social functioning in adulthood

• Sociocultural differences exist in what is considered an ACE and in how ACEs affect outcomes

  • The definition and impact of adverse experiences are shaped by cultural context

    • E.g. a child growing up in a household with a parent experiencing serious mental illness may face different ACE-related challenges than a child experiencing food insecurity