Personality Disorders (College Board AP® Psychology): Study Guide

Symptoms of personality disorders

• Personality disorders are characterized by enduring patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving that deviate from cultural expectations and cause distress or impairment.

• To be classified as a personality disorder, the pattern must be:

  • deviant: markedly different from what is expected by the individual's culture

  • pervasive and inflexible: manifesting across a wide range of personal and social situations

  • early onset: begins in adolescence or early adulthood

  • stable over time: persistent and enduring, not episodic

  • clinically significant: leads to personal distress or functional impairment

• Personality disorders are organized into three clusters based on shared descriptive features:

  • Cluster A: odd or eccentric

  • Cluster B: dramatic, emotional, or erratic

  • Cluster C: anxious or fearful

Cluster A: odd or eccentric

• Cluster A disorders are characterized by:

  • suspicious, eccentric, or odd behavior

    • People with these disorders often seem peculiar or socially isolated

• Paranoid personality disorder:

  • A person has an unjustified distrust and suspicion of others

    • E.g. believing without sufficient basis that others are exploiting or deceiving them and persistently bearing grudges

• Schizoid personality disorder:

  • A pattern of detachment from social relationships and a restricted range of emotional expression

    • E.g. a person who has no interest in forming friendships or romantic relationships, prefers to work alone, and appears emotionally cold or indifferent in social interactions

• Schizotypal personality disorder:

  • A pattern of social deficits with odd beliefs, perceptual distortions and eccentric behavior

    • E.g. a person who believes they have magical thinking and can sense others' thoughts, uses unusual speech patterns, and has few close relationships due to social discomfort

Cluster B: dramatic, emotional, or erratic

• Cluster B disorders are characterized by:

  • dramatic, impulsive, emotional, or erratic behavior

• Antisocial personality disorder:

  • A pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others

    • People with antisocial personality disorder view the social world as hostile and view themselves as independent and unaccountable to others

      • E.g. repeatedly engaging in behaviors that harm others without remorse

  • People with antisocial personality disorder are not insensitive to others

    • They are aware of others' feelings and often use this awareness manipulatively

• Borderline personality disorder:

  • A pattern of instability in relationships, identity and mood

    • People with borderline personality disorder have intense, unstable relationships, fear abandonment and may have recurrent self-harm or suicidal behavior

      • E.g. a person who forms very intense relationships quickly, then suddenly shifts from idealizing someone to feeling angry or rejected; they may panic at the thought of being left, engage in impulsive behavior

• Histrionic personality disorder:

  • A pattern of excessive emotionality and attention-seeking

    • A person may feel uncomfortable when not the center of attention and uses their appearance to draw attention

      • E.g. a person who constantly seeks attention in social situations, becomes upset if others are the focus, and dresses or behaves in exaggerated ways to attract notice

  • This may be considered normal in some cultural contexts that value expressiveness, so cultural sensitivity is required in diagnosis

• Narcissistic personality disorder:

  • A pattern of grandiosity (in fantasy or behavior), need for admiration, and lack of empathy

    • A person may have an inflated sense of self-importance, believes they are special and lacks empathy

      • E.g. someone who monopolizes conversations, expects special treatment without reciprocating, and dismisses others' feelings as unimportant

Cluster C: anxious or fearful

• Cluster C disorders are characterized by anxious or fearful behavior

• Avoidant personality disorder:

  • A pattern of social inhibition and feelings of inadequacy

    • The person desires close relationships but avoids them for fear of rejection or humiliation

      • E.g. they avoid social situations involving significant contact with others, view themselves as unappealing and is reluctant to take risks

• Dependent personality disorder:

  • An excessive need to be taken care of, leading to submissive and clinging behavior

    • Difficulty making decisions without reassurance and fears being alone

      • E.g. a person may be unable to make everyday decisions without constant advice and reassurance from others; agrees with others even when they believe they are wrong, to avoid disapproval

• Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD):

  • A preoccupation with orderliness, perfectionism, and control

    • OCPD is distinct from OCD as a person with OCPD sees their need for order and control as desirable, whereas in OCD the obsessions and compulsions are ego-dystonic

      • E.g. a person who is so focused on ensuring everything is perfect that they never complete tasks. They rigidly follows rules and procedures and cannot adapt

Causes of personality disorders

• Personality disorders are best explained by multiple interacting factors, rather than a single cause

Biological & genetic factors

• Genetic factors: personality disorders show heritability

  • twin and family studies show higher rates of personality disorders in relatives of affected individuals

  • genetics influence temperament and core personality traits

• Biological factors: differences in brain structure and neurotransmitters are associated with specific personality disorders

  • e.g. low serotonin is linked to impulsivity and aggression in antisocial and borderline personality disorders

Developmental & social factors

• Adverse childhood experiences, particularly trauma, abuse, neglect, and disrupted attachment are strongly linked to personality disorders

  • These are particularly important in borderline and antisocial personality disorders

• These early experiences shape emotional regulation and interpersonal patterns

Cognitive & cultural factors

• Maladaptive core beliefs about the self and others formed early in life are maintained through cognitive distortions

  • These beliefs drive long-term patterns of thinking and behavior

• Cultural norms influence:

  • what is considered deviant behavior

  • how symptoms are expressed

  • whether a disorder is diagnosed