Legislation Guidance for AP Environmental Science (College Board AP® Environmental Science): Flashcards

The Clean Air Act (CAA) is federal legislation that aims to reduce air pollutants harmful to human health and the environment.

The original Clean Air Act was passed in 1963, as the first federal legislation to control air pollution.

The six criteria air pollutants are carbon monoxide (CO), lead (Pb), nitrogen oxides (NOx), ground-level ozone (O₃), sulfur dioxide (SO₂), and particulate matter (PM).

The Clean Air Act empowers the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to enforce its regulations.

False.

Key pollutants decreased dramatically even as population and energy use increased.

The 1970 amendments established national standards for air quality.

Regulating nitrogen oxides (NOx) under the Clean Air Act contributes to less photochemical smog.

The 1990 amendments addressed acid rain, ozone depletion, and toxic air pollutants.

Reduced SO₂ emissions have led to less acid rain, helping forests and aquatic systems.

False.

The Clean Air Act targets the six criteria air pollutants; emerging pollutants like microplastics and indoor air toxins fall outside its scope.

Restrictions on leaded gasoline reduced lead in the air, improving public and ecosystem health.

Clean Air Act strategies include catalytic converters in vehicles, scrubbers in industrial smokestacks, and alternative fuels and clean energy sources.

Ground-level ozone and PM2.5 remain hard to control in urban areas.

Public health benefits linked to the Clean Air Act include fewer respiratory illnesses, asthma attacks, and premature deaths.

The Clean Air Act needs updating to address methane and CO₂ emissions more directly.

The Clean Water Act (CWA) is a law that aims to restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of U.S. waters.

The Cuyahoga River in Ohio was so polluted that it repeatedly caught fire.

The Clean Water Act was passed in 1972, as a major amendment to the 1948 Federal Water Pollution Control Act.

False.

The Clean Water Act focuses on point source pollution, which comes from a single, identifiable source such as a pipe or drain.

The 1987 amendments addressed nonpoint source pollution, including runoff from agriculture and urban areas.

The Clean Water Act makes it illegal to discharge pollutants into navigable waters without a permit.

The Clean Water Act sets standards for surface water quality.

The Clean Water Act limits toxic discharges from factories, sewage plants, and storm drains.

The Clean Water Act requires wastewater treatment (primary, secondary, and tertiary) before discharge.

False.

Nonpoint source pollution, such as agricultural runoff and urban stormwater, remains a major problem.

The Clean Water Act protects wetlands because they are essential for water filtration and flood control.

By reducing nutrient pollution, the Clean Water Act helps prevent eutrophication and dead zones.

The Clean Water Act is a solution to oxygen depletion, bioaccumulation, and ecosystem disruption.

Wetlands protection has faced legal controversy over what counts as "waters of the United States."

CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) is a global agreement that regulates and monitors trade so that international trade does not threaten species survival.

The CITES agreement was drafted and signed in 1973.

CITES officially came into force in 1975.

False.

CITES applies to both plants and animals, living or dead, and their parts or products, such as feathers, coral, wood, and bones.

High demand for ivory, exotic pets, skins, and traditional medicines was fueling unsustainable harvesting.

CITES Appendix I lists species threatened with extinction, and trade in them is permitted only in exceptional circumstances.

Appendix II covers species not necessarily threatened with extinction, but whose trade must be controlled.

Appendix III covers species protected in at least one country that has asked other CITES parties for help in controlling trade.

Species protected by CITES include elephants (ivory), rhinos (horn), tigers, pangolins, orchids, and hardwoods like mahogany.

CITES indirectly reduces invasive species risk by controlling the exotic pet trade.

False.

Black markets persist, particularly in high-value goods such as rhino horn and pangolin scales.

CITES enforcement varies because some nations have limited capacity or political will to implement its protections.

Some threatened species are not yet listed under CITES due to political or economic pressures.

CERCLA (the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act) is a law designed to clean up abandoned or uncontrolled hazardous waste sites.

CERCLA was most notably triggered by the Love Canal disaster in New York during the 1970s.

CERCLA is commonly known as Superfund.

CERCLA was passed and signed into law in 1980.

False.

CERCLA focuses on remediation, tackling environmental damage after it occurs. By contrast, RCRA regulates active waste management.

CERCLA holds polluters financially responsible for environmental damage.

CERCLA established a federal fund to clean up sites when no responsible party can be found.

The 1986 Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) expanded the program, increasing public access to information, encouraging permanent cleanups, and strengthening EPA enforcement.

CERCLA sites are placed on the National Priorities List (NPL).

Sites on the National Priorities List include landfills, factories, mines, and military sites.

False.

The Superfund has run low on funding, especially since the polluter tax expired in the 1990s.

CERCLA removes or contains toxic contaminants from soil, groundwater, and surface water.

CERCLA cleanups are expensive and slow, sometimes taking decades to complete.

CERCLA highlights the link between pollution and cancer clusters and waterborne diseases.

Legal disputes over liability can delay remediation under CERCLA.

The Montreal Protocol is an international agreement designed to phase out ozone-depleting substances (ODSs) so that the stratospheric ozone layer can recover.

The stratospheric ozone layer protects life from UV radiation, which can cause skin cancer, cataracts, and DNA damage.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) breaking down ozone led to the formation of the "ozone hole" over Antarctica.

The Montreal Protocol was signed in 1987.

The Montreal Protocol came into effect in 1989.

The Montreal Protocol targets CFCs (aerosols, refrigeration, and air conditioning), halons (fire extinguishers), and methyl bromide (agriculture).

False.

The ozone layer is on track to fully recover by the mid-to-late 21st century.

The 2016 Kigali Amendment expanded the agreement to include hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs).

False.

Some substitutes, such as HFCs, are potent greenhouse gases that contribute to climate change.

Ozone layer recovery is slow because certain chemicals have long atmospheric residence times.

The Montreal Protocol demonstrated the effectiveness of science-driven policy and global cooperation.

An ongoing challenge is the continued illegal use of banned substances in some countries.

The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty that set legally binding emission reduction targets for participating developed countries.

The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in 1997 at the UN Climate Change Conference in Kyoto, Japan.

False.

The Kyoto Protocol targeted greenhouse gases to tackle climate change; the Montreal Protocol targeted ozone-depleting substances.

The Kyoto Protocol was developed under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).

The Kyoto Protocol targeted six greenhouse gases:

• carbon dioxide (CO₂)

• methane (CH₄)

• nitrous oxide (N₂O)

• hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)

• perfluorocarbons (PFCs)

• sulfur hexafluoride (SF₆)

The Clean Development Mechanism is a Kyoto carbon trading mechanism that allows developed countries to invest in emission-reducing projects in developing nations.

Alongside the Clean Development Mechanism, the Kyoto Protocol introduced cap-and-trade systems as a carbon trading mechanism.

The Kyoto Protocol set binding targets for developed countries because industrialized nations were historically responsible for most greenhouse gas emissions.

The Kyoto Protocol entered into force in 2005 after enough countries had ratified it.

False.

The United States did not ratify the treaty, so a major emitter was outside its binding targets.

The Doha Amendment established a second commitment period (2012-2020), although not all countries ratified it.

The Kyoto Protocol had a limited impact because many countries failed to meet their targets and its enforcement mechanisms were weak.

The Kyoto Protocol was eventually replaced by the Paris Agreement in 2015, which includes both developed and developing nations.

The Endangered Species Act is a law that protects species at risk of extinction, preserves the ecosystems they depend on, and prohibits activities that harm listed species or their habitats.

The Endangered Species Act was passed and signed into law in 1973.

False.

The ESA is a U.S. law; CITES is the international treaty that controls trade in endangered species.

U.S. wildlife populations declined mainly because of habitat loss, pollution, and overhunting.

An endangered species is a species in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range.

A threatened species is a species likely to become endangered in the foreseeable future.

The ESA is administered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (terrestrial and freshwater species) and the National Marine Fisheries Service (marine species).

The ESA requires the development of Recovery Plans for listed species.

Critical habitat designations can conflict with land development or resource use.

The ESA has prevented the extinction of over 99% of the species listed under it.

The ESA has aided the recovery of the bald eagle, the American alligator, and the gray wolf.

True.

Critics argue the ESA is too slow or reactive because it often protects species only once they are already in severe decline.

The ESA requires scientific evidence before a species is added to or removed from the list.

The Safe Drinking Water Act is a law that ensures safe drinking water for the public by regulating public water systems.

The SDWA was passed in 1974.

The SDWA aims to protect drinking water from source to tap.

NPDWRs are standards set by the EPA under the SDWA that limit the levels of contaminants such as lead, arsenic, nitrates, and microbes in drinking water.

False.

Regulating discharges is the job of the Clean Water Act (CWA); the SDWA sets standards for drinking water from public water systems.

Under the SDWA, water suppliers must regularly test water and report violations.

The 1986 and 1996 amendments expanded protection to underground sources, added pollutant monitoring, and increased public access to water quality information.

False.

The SDWA deals with water for human consumption; it does not directly regulate water for ecosystems or industry.

The SDWA has helped reduce outbreaks of giardiasis and cholera.

False.

The Flint, Michigan lead contamination shows the uneven enforcement of SDWA standards and failures of oversight.

Emerging contaminants not yet regulated under the SDWA include PFAS and microplastics.

Small or rural water systems may lack the funding or infrastructure to comply with all SDWA requirements.

The Delaney Clause is a provision of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act that originally prohibited any food additive found to induce cancer in humans or animals.

The Delaney Clause was enacted in 1958 as part of the Food Additives Amendment.

The Delaney Clause applied a zero-tolerance policy to carcinogens in the U.S. food supply.

False.

It applied to both direct additives (such as preservatives) and indirect additives (such as residues from packaging or processing).

The Food Quality Protection Act of 1996 modified how the Delaney Clause is applied.

The Food Quality Protection Act introduced a risk-based approach, shifting the focus from zero risk to a reasonable certainty of no harm.

The Delaney Clause highlights how environmental contaminants, such as pesticide residues or industrial chemicals, can enter the food chain.

The Delaney Clause was difficult to enforce because modern technology could detect trace amounts of substances.

False.

It does not consider actual exposure levels: a chemical might cause cancer in rats at extremely high doses but pose negligible risk at trace levels in human diets.

A substance could be banned under the Delaney Clause but allowed in pesticides because different laws applied.

The Delaney Clause set a precedent for preventive regulation of chemicals in the food system.

The RCRA is a U.S. law that regulates active waste management: how waste is generated, stored, transported, treated, and disposed of.

The RCRA was passed and signed into law in 1976.

False.

Cleanup of past contamination is covered by CERCLA (Superfund); the RCRA aims to prevent contamination before it happens.

The RCRA gives the EPA authority to oversee waste from "cradle to grave."

The RCRA covers municipal solid waste, industrial waste, and hazardous waste.

Many landfills and waste facilities operated without oversight, leading to soil and water contamination.

The RCRA was strengthened by the Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments (HSWA) of 1984.

The HSWA banned the land disposal of untreated hazardous waste.

The RCRA requires hazardous waste shipments to be tracked and handled with strict procedures.

The RCRA helps prevent leaching, methane production, and groundwater contamination.

False.

The RCRA focuses more on hazardous waste, and critics argue it does not adequately address e-waste or microplastics.

The RCRA has helped eliminate unregulated landfills and storage sites.