IBPoliticsDPGlobal PoliticsHLRevision Notes4. Thematic Studies: Peace & Conflict4.3 Nature, Practice & Study of Peace & ConflictResolving Non-Violent Forms of Conflict

Resolving Non-Violent Forms of Conflict (DP IB Global Politics: HL): Revision Note

Written by: Jane Hirons

Reviewed by: Lisa Eades

Updated on 16 April 2026

Cyber conflict

Cyber conflict is use of digital tools and technology by states or non-state actors to attack, disrupt or undermine the computer systems, infrastructure or information of an opponent in order to gain a political or strategic advantage
- The purpose of cyber conflict can be to gain information, cause economic chaos or extort money
Although cyber conflict takes place online, it impacts the physical world significantly and is challenging to resolve
This type of conflict is asymmetric, meaning even small groups with limited resources can attack more traditionally powerful states, companies or actors

Actors often responsible for cyber conflict

Actor	Explanation
States (often by using a third party)	Governments may launch cyber attacks against other states to steal intelligence, disrupt infrastructure, or gain strategic advantage, without the risks of conventional warfare They often use third parties (such as private hacker groups or contractors) to maintain plausible deniability, making it difficult to attribute the attack officially E.g. The Stuxnet worm, widely attributed to the US and Israel, sabotaged Iran's nuclear centrifuges
Terrorist groups	Non-state actors motivated by ideological, political, or religious goals may use cyberattacks to cause disruption, spread fear, recruit supporters, or fund their activities Cyber methods are attractive because they are cheap, can be carried out remotely, and can reach a global audience However, most terrorist groups currently lack the technical sophistication to carry out major infrastructure attacks
Criminal gangs	Organised crime groups use cyber attacks primarily for financial gain — through ransomware, fraud, data theft, or extortion While their motives are economic rather than political, their attacks can have serious consequences for governments, hospitals, and businesses States sometimes tolerate or even cooperate with criminal hackers when their activities serve state interests
Hacktivists	Individuals or groups who use cyber attacks to advance a political, social, or environmental cause Unlike criminal gangs, their motivation is ideological rather than financial — they aim to embarrass governments or corporations, expose wrongdoing, or disrupt organisations they oppose Attacks typically take the form of website defacement, data leaks, or denial-of-service attacks E.g. Anonymous, which has targeted governments, security agencies, and corporations in support of causes such as internet freedom and anti-corruption

Challenges to resolving cyber conflict

It is not always clear who is behind the attack(s) as the the attackers often take elaborate measures to disguise their identity or are working on behalf of state actors
- If the opponent is unclear, traditional conflict resolution strategies simply do not work
Cyberconflict is said to be a “grey zone” of conflict meaning it causes great damage but is not violent and consequences are not always immediately visible
The focus for most governments and companies is on preventing cyberwarfare by strengthening their operating systems because once the attack(s) have occurred the damage is done
Multiple actors including states, IGOS (e.g. UN, World Bank), Technology companies and Informal Forums (World Economic Forum), are looking at ways the global community work together to both prevent and immediately respond to these kinds of attacks, and better identify those responsible

Case Study

NotPetya (2017)

In June 2017, a cyberattack named NotPetya spread through global computer networks, causing an estimated $10 billion in damage — making it one of the most destructive cyberattacks in history

Although it appeared to be ransomware, it was designed purely to destroy data, with no possibility of recovery

Ransom note screen demanding $300 Bitcoin for file decryption key, instructing to send Bitcoin and email wallet ID and installation key for recovery.

What happened?

The attack was hidden inside a routine software update for a Ukrainian accounting programme
Once downloaded, it spread automatically, permanently deleting files
Ukraine was the primary target, but the malware spread globally, crippling shipping giant Maersk ($300m in losses), pharmaceutical company Merck ($870m), and disrupting NHS hospitals in the UK

Who was responsible?

The attack was attributed by the US, UK, and EU governments to Sandworm, a unit of Russian military intelligence (the GRU), amid ongoing tensions following Russia's annexation of Crimea
Russia denied involvement — a clear example of a state using a third party and plausible deniability to disguise its role

Links to key concepts

NotPetya illustrates several key features of cyber conflict
- Its physical-world impact was enormous despite no conventional weapons being used
- Its asymmetric nature meant a small group caused damage on a massive scale
- Its grey zone character — destructive but not technically an act of war — meant no legal consequences followed
The absence of a binding global framework left affected states and companies with no meaningful avenue for accountability

Conflict with marginalised, vulnerable or most affected groups and individuals

Conflicts of this type arise when certain groups within society, such as ethnic minorities, women, people with disabilities, Indigenous communities or those living in poverty, face systematic disadvantage, discrimination or exclusion
This kind of conflict is closely linked to Galtung's theory of cultural violence
- Deeply embedded social norms, beliefs and institutions legitimise the unequal treatment of certain groups, often making the conflict invisible to those not directly affected
Those outside marginalised or vulnerable groups are frequently unaware of, or indifferent to, these conflicts, as they do not experience the same barriers or harm
Resolving these conflicts requires multiple actors working together towards changes in social norms and institutional discrimination — each with different responsibilities and methods

Actors and strategies for resolution

Actor	Responsibilities and methods
IGOs	Set global standards and frameworks to reduce inequality and protect vulnerable groups The UN's Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) — particularly Goal 10 (Reduced Inequalities) and Goal 5 (Gender Equality) — provide targets for member states The ILO sets international labour standards to protect workers' rights, including those of migrant workers and people in informal employment UN Women advocates for gender equality and coordinates global responses to violence against women
State governments	Enact and enforce laws that guarantee legal equality and protection for all citizens Examples include South Africa's post-apartheid constitution (one of the world's most rights-inclusive), affirmative action policies in the US and India designed to address historical discrimination, and disability discrimination legislation such as the UK's Equality Act (2010) Governments may also fund community programmes targeting poverty and social exclusion
NGOs and civil society	Raise awareness, document abuses, and advocate for policy change on behalf of those who lack political voice Amnesty International's annual report on human rights violations draws global attention to state abuses against minorities and activists Human Rights Watch documents specific cases of persecution Oxfam campaigns on wealth inequality and the disproportionate impact of poverty on women and marginalised communities
Social movements	Apply grassroots pressure to shift public opinion and challenge discriminatory norms Black Lives Matter highlighted systemic racism in policing across the US and beyond, leading to policy reviews in multiple countries The #MeToo movement exposed widespread sexual harassment and drove institutional reform in workplaces and legal systems Indigenous rights movements — such as those at Standing Rock, have challenged state and corporate actions harmful to Indigenous communities
Private companies	Adopt fair and inclusive practices that go beyond legal requirements The growing ESG (Environmental, Social and Governance) framework encourages companies to report on diversity and social impact Some businesses have introduced living wage commitments above the legal minimum, benefiting low-paid and marginalised workers Companies such as Ben & Jerry's have used their platform to publicly support racial and social justice causes

Why these conflicts are difficult to resolve

Conflicts involving marginalised groups are particularly hard to resolve because the causes are often deeply embedded in culture, history and institutions rather than in a single identifiable event or actor
Galtung's concept of cultural violence helps explain why
- When discrimination is normalised — through language, religion, media, or tradition — it can persist even after formal legal protections are introduced
- Progress also depends on political will, which is often lacking when those in power are not directly affected
- Different actors may have conflicting priorities or move at very different speeds, and meaningful change typically requires sustained effort across generations rather than a single intervention

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