Observations: Types (AQA GCSE Psychology)

• An observation is a non-experimental method although some observations may use manipulation of an independent variable (e.g. Bandura, 1961 observed children who had been exposed to either an aggressive or a non-aggressive adult model)
• Observers can only investigate observable behaviours i.e. what they can see (e.g. a child hits the doll with a mallet)
• Observers cannot infer motive, intention, feeling or thought from an observation (e.g. a child ignores the doll because they are not interested in it)
• A naturalistic observation is one in which the researcher observes and records behaviours in a natural setting, away from the lab, with no manipulation of an IV, e.g:
  • Children are observed in the school playground 
  • Shoppers are observed in a supermarket 
  • The crowd at a sporting event is observed
• Participants in a naturalistic observation may be unaware that they are being observed as they are simply going about their regular, everyday activities
• A controlled observation is one in which the researcher implements a level of control, e.g.:
  • Zimbardo’s (1973) prison study randomly allocated participants to the role of prisoner/guard i.e. the roles were artificial
  • Bandura’s (1961) Bobo doll study used a standardised procedure in lab conditions
• Participants know that they are taking part in a controlled observation as they must be recruited for the study and then set a specific task which is likely to be quite removed from their everyday activities/experience

• In an overt observation:
• Participants are aware that they are being observed and may have been informed of this in advance
• Participants may be able to see the researcher observing them 
• E.g. The participants in Zimbardo’s prison study were aware that they were being observed by the researcher and that cameras were filming them
• In a covert observation:
• Participants are not aware that they are being observed and will not have been informed of this in advance
• Participants cannot see the researcher observing them
• The only ethical way to conduct covert observation is to observe behaviour in the public context i.e. this would be happening anyway, regardless of the observation taking place

• In a participant observation:
  • The researcher (and possibly confederate of the researcher) join the group they are observing, becoming part of them
  • Participants may not be aware (in fact it is highly likely that the observation is covert) that the researcher is an outsider who is observing them
  • Rosenhan (1973) and 8 confederates had themselves falsely admitted to mental hospitals and kept a record of what they observed during their time there
  • Piliavin et al. (1969) blended in with New York subway passengers in their study of bystander behaviour
  • Note how both Rosenhan’s and Piliavin’s studies are naturalistic, covert observations as well
• In a non-participant observation:
  • The researcher stays separate and apart from the group they are observing
  • Participants may or may not be aware that they are being observed i.e. this type of observation can be overt or covert
  • Bandura’s Bobo doll study involved the researcher observing the children’s behaviour from another room via a one-way mirror
  • Ainsworth (1970) observed toddler-mother interactions via a one-way mirror
  • Note how both Bandura’s and Ainsworth’s studies are controlled, overt observations as well

Evaluation of observations

Strengths

• Observations - particularly those which are naturalistic and covert - are high in validity as real, unforced behaviour is measured
• Observations which use multiple observers can be checked for inter-observer reliability

Weaknesses

• There are ethical concerns with covert observations which means that conducting such research is problematic
• The researcher may bring their own bias to the research process i.e. they may observe what fits their expectations rather than what is happening