Observations: Types (AQA GCSE Psychology): Revision Note

Naturalistic or controlled observation?

• An observation involves the researcher watching and recording behaviour as it happens, rather than manipulating an IV

• Observers can only record observable behaviour, i.e. what they can actually see

  • e.g. a child hits the doll with a mallet

• Observers cannot infer motive, intention, feeling or thought from what they see

  • e.g. they cannot conclude a child ignored the doll because they weren't interested

Naturalistic observation

• The researcher observes and records behaviour in a natural setting, away from the lab, with nothing manipulated, e.g.:

  • Children observed in the school playground

  • Shoppers observed in a supermarket

  • The crowd observed at a sporting event

• Participants may be unaware they are being observed, as they are simply going about their everyday activities

Controlled observation

• The researcher implements a level of control over the setting or procedure, e.g.:

  • Zimbardo (1973): participants were randomly allocated to the role of prisoner or guard in a simulated prison — an artificial, controlled environment

  • Ainsworth (1970), the Strange Situation: mothers and toddlers were observed through a standardised sequence of controlled episodes

• Participants generally know they are taking part in a study, as they must be recruited and are usually set a task removed from their everyday activities

Covert or overt observation?

• In an overt observation:

  • Participants are aware that they are being observed and may have been informed of this in advance

  • Participants may be able to see the researcher observing them 

    • e.g. participants in Zimbardo's prison study knew they were being filmed and observed

• In a covert observation:

  • Participants are not aware that they are being observed and will not have been informed of this in advance

  • Participants cannot see the researcher observing them

  • The only ethical way to conduct covert observation is in a public context, where the behaviour would be happening anyway, regardless of the observation taking place

Participant or non-participant observation?

• In a participant observation:

  • The researcher (or someone working with them) joins the group being observed, becoming part of it

  • Participants are often unaware the researcher is an outsider ( participant observation is frequently covert)

• Examples of participant observation include:

  • Rosenhan (1973): Rosenhan and 7 others (pseudopatients) had themselves admitted to psychiatric hospitals and recorded what they observed during their stay

    • This was a naturalistic, covert participant observation

  • Piliavin et al. (1969) had researchers blend in with New York subway passengers to observe bystander behaviour

    • This study also manipulated the victim's appearance (e.g. drunk vs ill) as an IV, so it is better described as a field experiment that used participant observation to measure the DV (whether and how quickly people helped)

• In a non-participant observation:

  • The researcher stays separate from the group being observed

  • This type of observation can be either overt or covert

  • Ainsworth (1970) observed toddler–mother interactions through a one-way mirror

    • This was a controlled, non-participant, overt observation

Evaluation of observations

Strengths

• Observations, particularly those which are naturalistic and covert, are high in validity, as they measure real, unforced behaviour rather than behaviour produced for a researcher

• Using multiple observers allows a study to be checked for inter-observer reliability

Weaknesses

• Covert observation raises ethical concerns (no informed consent), which makes this type of research problematic to justify

• The researcher may bring their own bias to the process, observing what fits their expectations rather than what is actually happening (observer bias)

• Naturalistic observations do not manipulate an IV, so a researcher cannot establish cause and effect between variables, but only that certain behaviours occurred, not why